^m* ■rm r.l;/, ,; . THE JOURNAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY LONDON VOLUME III. LONDON: PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, AT THEIR HOUSE, 21, REGENT STREET. SOLD BY ALL BOOKSELLERS. 1848. \1^ l/om1on : Printed by William Clowes and Sons, Stamford Street. TABLE OF CONTENTS. VOLUME III. Original Cosimunications : — Article rage I. On the Arrangement of Gardens and Pleasure-G rounds in the Elizabethan Age. Communicated by the Vice- Secretary ........ 1 II. A short Account of Col. Feilding's Coryanth (Coryanthes Feildingii). By the Vice-Secretary . . • .15 III. Memorandum of an Experiment on the Continued Culti- vation of Wheat, in the Gardens of the Horticultural So- ciety, By Edward Solly, F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry to the Society . . . . . . . .13 IV. The Potato, its Condition in 1847. By George John Towers, CM.H.S. 22 V. Memoranda respecting the Cannon Hall Muscat Grape. By Alexander Wilson, Gardener at Cannon Hall " . 26 VI. On the Cultivation of British Orchids. By Mr. David Cameron, C.M.H.S., late Curator of the Botanic Garden, Birmingham ........ 28 VII. An Experiment in Planting. By Peter Mackenzie, of West Plean, Stirling 33 VIII. On the Conditions of Growth necessary to the Production of Bloom in Inga pulcherrima. By William Wood, Fishergate Nurseries, York ..... 34 IX. On a form of Scab in Potatoes. By the Eev. M. J. Berke- ley, M.A., F.L.S 37 X. Observations upon the best Methods of Packing Seeds for a Voyage to India or China. By Eobert Fortune . 41 XI. Some Account of the " Black Prince Hamburgh " Grape. By John Williams, of Pitmaston, C.M.H.S. . . 44 XII. Account of Experiments made in the Garden of the Hor- ticultural Society, in 1847, with reference to the Potato Disease. By Robert Thompson .... 46 XIII. Notes on the Wild Potato. By John Lindley, Ph. D., F.R.S., Vice-Secretary 65 XIV. A Notice of some species of Rhododendron inhabiting Bor- neo. By John Lindley, Ph. D., F.R.S., Vice-Secretary 81 XV. On a peculiar form of Mildew in Onions. By the Rev. M. J. Berkeley, M. A., F.L.S 91 a 2 Q R ^ L^ O O IV CONTENTS. Article Page XVI. Observations, made with .reference to the Temperature of the Earth in the Garden of the Horticultural Society at Chiswick. By Robert Thompson .... 99 XVII. On the most economical mode of forcing Seakale. By Ro- bert Errington, Gardener to Sir Philip de Malpas Grey Egerton, Bart., M.P., F.H.S 109 XVIIL On the Cultivation of Hardy Heaths. By David Cameron, C.M.H.S., late Curator of the Botanic Garden, Birming- ham 113 XIX. Syrian Fruits in the possession of John Barker, of Suspdia 115 XX. The Coniferous Plants of Italy, considered in their Geo- graphical and Historical Relations. By J. F. Schouw, F.M.H.S., Professor of Botany in the University of Copenhagen , . . . . ► . .116 XXI. Contributions to a History of the Relation between Climate and Vegetation in various parts of the Globe : No. 5. — The Vegetation of the Province of Cear a, in Brazil. By George Gardner, F.L.S., Director of the Royal Bo- tanic Garden, Ceylon ...... 144 No. 6. — The Vegetation of the Province of Piauhy, in Brazil, and the District of Rio Preto. By Geo. Gardner, F.L.S., Director of the Royal Botanic Garden, Ceylon 153 No. 7. — The Vegetation of the Province of Goyaz, in Brazil. By George Gardner, F.L.S., Director of the Royal Bo- tanic Garden, Ceylon . . . . . .157 XXII. On the Caprification of the Fig. By Professor Gasparrini 185 XXIII. Journal of a Mission to California in Search of Plants. By Mr. Theodor Hartweg, in the Service of the Horticultu- ral Society. Part IV. Continued from Vol. II., p. 191 217 XXIV. Description of the Fruit of an Apricot Tree growing in my Garden at Betias, near Susedia, in the Pachalik of Aleppo. By John Barker, Esq 22S XXV. Notice of a Visit to Pitmaston, near Worcester, May 25, 1848. By Robert Thompson 229 XXVI. Contributions to a History of the Relation between Climate and Vegetation in various parts of the Globe : No. 8. — The Vegetation of the Diamond and Gold Districts, in the Province of Minas Geraes, in Brazil. By George Gardner, F.L.S., Director of the Royal Botanic Garden, Ceylon 249 XXVII. The Dwarf Cocoa-Nut of Ceylon. Note by the Vice- Secretary ........ 258 XXVIII. On the Pot Culture of the Genus Gladiolus. By James Duncan, C.M.H.S., Gardener to Joseph Martineau, Esq., F.H.S., Basing Park, Alton 259 XXIX. On the Formation of Vine-Borders. By G. Fleming, C.M.H.S., Gardener to the Duke of Sutherland, F.H.S., atTrentham 260 CONTENTS. Article XXX. XXXI. XXXII. XXXIII XXXIV. XXXV. XXXVI. XXXVII. XXXVIII, XXXIX. XL. Notice respecting Two Varieties of Grapes. Williams, C.M.H.S., of Pitmaston By John J. By the Rev. M May 2. '5, On the White Rust of Cabbages Berkeley, M.A., F.L.S Notice of a Visit to Pitmaston, near Worcester, 1848. By Robert Thompson . , Potatoes for 1849. By R. Errington, Gardener to Sir Philip de Malpas Grey Egerton, Bart., M.P., F.H.S. . Observations upon the Temperature to which Plants are naturally exposed in New Holland. By the Vice- Secretary ........ On the Cultivation of Celery. By Robert Errington, Gardener to Sir P. de Malpas Grey Egerton, Bart, M.P., F.H.S., Oulton Park, Tarporley, Cheshire . An Account of some Hybrid Melons. By Sir G. S. Mac- kenzie, Bart., F.H.S On Forcing Seakale and Rhubarb, Blanching Winter Salads, and Protecting late Vegetables. By James Duncan, C.M.H.S., Gardener to Joseph Martineau, Esq., F.H.S., Basing Park, near Alton .... . On Clumping out Flowers. By Robert Errington, Gar- dener to Sir Philip de Malpas Grey Egerton, Bart,, M.P., F.H.S., Oulton Park, near Tarporley Notes on some varieties of Grapes, fruited in the Garden of the Society in 1847. By Robert Thompson On the Culture of Lisianthus Russellianus. By John Green, C.M.H.S., Gardener to Sir Edmund Antrobus, Bart, F.H.S New Plants, &c., from the Society's Garden : — 1. Spiraea expansa 2. Gilia pharnaceoides . 3. Hugelia lanata . 4. Arthrostemma fragile 5. Peperomia pallescens . 6. Lycoris straminea 7. Oncidium tenue 8. Pogogyne multiflora . 9. Clematis tubulosa 10. Gesnera breviflora 11. Iris reticulata . 12. Cuscuta? Californica 13. Mr. Fortune's Moutan Pseonies 14. Mr. Fortune's Camellias 15. Thyrsacanthus strictus 16. Lonicera angustifolia 17. Citrus japonica 18. Zauschneria Californica 19. Calceolaria cuneifomiis 20. Angelonia angustifolia 21. Acacia ixiophylla . . Pace 264 26.'"> 271 277 282 297 299 302 304 307 308 73 ib. 74 ib. 76 ib. ib. 78 ib. 165 ib. 167 236 237 ih. 238 239 241 242 ib. 244 CONTENTS. 22. Sericographis Ghiesbreghti 23. Amygdalus Persica . 24. Bouvardia Cavanillesii 25. Viburnum dilatatum . 26. Mussffinda macrophylla 27. Metrosideros robusta . 28. Lupiuus affinis . 29. Monardella undulata . 30. Amygdalus Persica, Double 31. Restrepia vittata 82. Gastronema sanguineum 33. Navarretia atractyloides 34. Valeriana Mikanise . 35. Phytolacca icosandra . 36. Achimenes Candida 37. Achimenes atrosanguinea 38. Rosa rugosa 39. Acliimenes misera 40. Nemophila maculata . Memoranda Report from the Council Proceedings at Meetings of ti Au Crimson Peach E Society, from September 7, 184 < ist 1, 1848. 244 246 ih. 247 ib. 311 312 ib 313 314 315 316 ib. ib. 317 818 ib. 319 ib. 168 169 ', to ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS. I. — On the Arrangement of Gardens and Pleasure- Grounds in the Elizabethan Age. (Communicated by the Vice-Secretary.) Before the reign of Elizabeth it would not seem that the laying out of grounds, or even horticulture itself, in the strict sense of the word, had been made the subject of any treatise. That records of the opinions and habits of our ancestors on these matters exist in old MSS., although not reduced therein to any regular system, there is little reason to doubt ; and, as regards horticulture, it would assuredly repay any person who may have the leisure if he should ascertain successfully what were the indigenous plants, and especially vegetables, of this country, tracing carefully the introduction of others into general use. Such information must exist in the British Museum and in other libraries in which the older MSS. are preserved. It would doubtless be a laborious work. Hundreds of pages must be searched with comparatively few though valuable results ; yet the whole result would be as instructive as gratifying. Failing this general inquiry, extending from the earliest period on which information can be brought to bear down to our own time, the first period in which information is yielded to us from printed works is in its own way full of interest. Every one has a pretty correct notion of a mansion of the Elizabethan era — its peculiarities as to external style and internal arrangement — and every one is equally aware that in the last few years a consider- able revival of this architectural style has taken place. It was not unnatural, however, that they who have been roused into strong admiration of this style — and if it be admired at all the admiration felt is usually enthusiastic — should imagine the re- vival incomplete unless the mansion were surrounded by gardens and grounds precisely in the taste of the same date. It is not absolutely self-evident that this should be a necessary consequence of reviving the mansion any more than that the same conse- quence should obtain if we should erect a mansion of the Grecian, or Roman, or Saxon, or Gothic, or any other style. So far from it, such a principle must involve a great degree of inconvenience as well as absurdity. The truth, however, is that very few are well informed on the subject ; and I think that nothing would go further to open the eyes of such ultra-enthusiasts than to re- suscitate a complete model of the grounds and garden attached VOL. III. B 2 AIlllANGEMENT OF GARDENS AND PLEASURE-GROUNDS to a mansion of the period in question. This cannot very well be done, and indeed would be scarcely worth the expense. For we have access to books which avowedly describe the prevailing- fashions in gardening, with the then latest improvements, and do so very accurately. The first of any importance was written by Didymns Mountain, and the first edition came out towards the close of the sixteenth century. It is dedicated by permission to " the Right Honourable and his singular good Lorde Sir William Cecille, Knight of the Most Noble Order of the Garter, Baron of Burghley, Lord High Treasurer of England, &c." Nothing could demonstrate the utter want of originality at that time more completely than this work. Prefixed to it, and ostentatiously, is a list of twenty-eight authors on which it is founded. It commences Avith Pliny, Cicero, and Columella, and ends with Galen ; and the directions given in the body of the work as to laying out the garden are obviously only an embodiment of the fashionable style then existing, for the benefit of his uninitiated readers. However unoriginal, then, tlie whole compilation may be, it is in the same proportion valuable as a record of facts, and its value is not diminished by its illustrative woodcuts, which were doubtless regarded at that day as beautiful. He first sketches certain specimens of ancient gardening among the Romans, and then says, " But to be brief, and leaving further to report of antiquity, I think it high time to declare the effects and commodity of this Avork taken in hand, and first to entreate of tiie care, helps, and secrets to be learned and followed in the garden-ground, all which in a pleasant manner shall after be uttered in distinct chapters, to the furtherance and commodity of many gardeners, and all such having pleasure therein." Of the avithor's " pleasant manner," which he pi'oclaims so complacently, the less said the better ; and while the substance of the book might certainly be for " the commodity " of such gardeners as were before in a state of utter ignorance, I confess myself unable to see what "furtherance" or improvement could be gained by tliose who Avere even tolerably informed or possessed any reflecting faculties themselves. Tlie author starts naturally enough witli the prin- ciple on which the whole garden-plot should be laid down, and a most Lilliputian grasp of mind and imagination it shows. There is no wide yet varied expanse of surface ; no undulation is spoken of; no changing views created artificially yet natural in effect ; no lake with its calm sheet of water, its broken shores, and its overhanging trees and bordering shrubs and flowers ; no winding paths, or purling streams, or beautiful water-falls ; no well-placed groups of trees, and not a hint of a noble avenue. The direction is as low-idea'd as the principle itself is bald. IN THE ELIZABETHAN AGE. 3 " As to the well standing of a 'garden, it behoveth the aptest and most laudable placing of a garden-plot shall be, if thej3/«m ground lying somewhat aslope shall have a course of spring water run- ning through by several parts. But this course of water running through the garden may in no wise he big." I do not think that I have wrongly described the author's conception as Lilliputian. It is clear that he did not contemplate the devoting of a large space of ground to this purpose, from his caution that the streamlet must be narrow ; or, on the other hand, if the whole space were intended to be really large, the narrow rills of water must have had an effect inconceivably ludicrous. Even so far, largeness of conception is out of the question. Nothing is de- signed or imagined worthy of being an accompaniment to a noble and magnificent mansion. With the park beyond the garden I have nothing to do : it is on the space between the mansion and the park that the author operates, whether taste- fully or not there can be little or no difference of opinion. The first feature of any importance which strikes the attention is contained in his twelftli chapter, entitled thus : — " The framing of sundry herbers delectable in a garden, with the walks and alleys artly devised in the same." And he thus describes what he evidently views as one of the principal ornaments. " The herber (arbour) in a garden may be framed with juniper-poles or the willow, either to stretch or be bound together with osiers after a square form, or in arch-manner united, that the branches of the vine, melon, or cucumber, running and spreading all over, might so shadow and keep both the heat and sun from the walkers and sitters therein. The herbers erected and framed in most gardens are to their much refreshing comfort and delight." This idea alone relishes exceedingly of the taste adapted to the comfort of modern tea-gardens — specimens of which have long abounded in the suburbs of London and along the shores of the Thames. But whether we can term that taste refined or exalted which would prescribe this as one of the chief beauties for the external adornment of a stately mansion I cannot and dare not say. But we can approximate to a clearer notion of the actual appearance of these herbers by contemplating his description of the square-formed and arched herbers respectively. For the square-formed he recommends plants and flowers of a fragrant savour, such as rosemary, jasmine, and the rose ; for the arched, jasmine-tree, musk-rose, damask-rose, privet-tree, " vines also as well." I honestly confess myself rather puzzled to account for the careful classification of plants for the differently shaped herbers. I do not know why the same plants should not have been equally well designed for both — the flowers equally fragrant, and grapes equally luscious. Probably, however, the arched herber was B 2 4 ARBANGEMENT OF GARDENS AND PLEASURE-GROUNDS meant to adorn the grounds of the'more aristocratic or the more wealthy owner. These herbers, of whichever shape, stood at the side of alleys, which he mentions in the title to this chapter. And this feature of his garden views and garden delights is thus simply described : — " They are to be even trodden out, and levelled by a line, as either three or four feet broad, and are to be cleanly sifted over with sand, to the end that showers of rain falling may not offend the walkers (at that instant) in them, by the earth cleaving or clogging to their feet." Very plain all this — very straightforward — but surely not very exquisite in ideal or real beauty. But the author falls back upon the plea of utility. He declares the use of alleys to be that the owner may be able " so to view the prosperity of his herbes and flowers." The truth is manifest — that what would be regarded in these days not as a beautiful ornament but simply as a convenience, and that, too, to a house of only moderate pretensions, was magnified into a feature of the scene which was not only indispensable but worthy of all admiration. But the alleys would be incomplete without tlie walks. And his language is worthy of observation, as show- ing how completely i\\e formal reigned in every part of the plan. They are strictly enjoined to be " strait." " These strait walks, the ivealthy made like galleries, being all open towards the garden, and covered with tlie vine spreading all over, or some otlier trees which more pleased them. Thus briefly have I touched upon the benefit of walks and alleys in any garden -ground, which the gardener of his own experience may artly tread out by a line and sift over with sand for the causes above uttered." The only matter now remaining for him to discuss was the arrangement of the ground between the alleys and the walks, IN THE ELIZABETHAN AGE. 5 and then the picture would be complete. This he fills up with quarters and beds. "Quarters'' he desires to be well turned in, and fatted with good manure ; and the " beds " he thus de- scribes — they are to be trodden out narrow^ and of a length as twelve feet long and six feet broad. In moist ground the edges of the beds are to be two feet high ; in dry ground the height of one foot is declared sufficient ; and there are to be good gutters around the beds. The above woodcut, taken from liis work, shows a portion of a garden, containing a bed, a herber, an alley, a walk, two creatures designed to be men, and one of the most gorgeous sunsets ever beheld. The general laying out of the ground surface is now pretty clear. But formal as the whole arrangement is, and equally formal the shapes of the herbers, the alleys, and the walks, we should form a very inadequate idea of the whole effect in appear- ance, or of the then favourite subjects for horticulture, if we did not give his instructions as to the seeds of vegetables, " tender herbes and pleasant flowers," with which these beds were to be stocked. In the end of harvest, in September and October, for winter, are to be sown endive, onions, garlicke, scalions, the great garlicke, young leek-heads, coleworts, mustard-seed, and such like ; in harvest and spring time, coleworts, manew (so I make out the word), artichoke, endive, lettuce, dyll, rocket, coliander, parsley, fennell, radish, parsnip, carrot, and others. This is the substance of the directions given in one chapter. In the next he thus speaks of " tender herbes and pleasant flowers." I go on at once to this part, for the intervening directions as to the comparative ages of the seeds to be used scarcely belong to this division of the subject. His list, then, of these herbs and flowers is very curious — curious on account of their being so intermingled as to give no idea of the taste shown in their dispo- sition throughout the garden. It runs thus : — " Marjoram, saverie, herbe fluelline, buglosse, the blessed thistel, the herbe angelica, valerian, baulme, annis, dil, fennel, digany, rue or herbe of grace, sperage, aracke, spynache, brites, endyve, borage, rocket, taragone, parslie, sorrall, strawberrie, lettuce, artichoke, marigold of all sorts : rosecampion red and white, flower amorose, flower petilins, columbine white and blue, sweet Johns, pincke, heart's-ease, peonie, red lilie, lavender gentle, bachelors' button, gill-flower of all kinds, and carnation." Now there are several matters worthy of observation in this portion of the work. An explanation of some of the words used to designate vegetables or flowers would employ the leisure of some of our readers well. It would be curious, again, to ascer- tain which of our principal modern vegetables are absent from this list ; tlie potato necessarily being one. As to the flowers. O ARRANGEMENT OF GAEDENS AND PLEASURE-GROUNDS seeing the progress which has been made in their cultivation, the immense addition made to the varieties of those previously existing, and the great number of new sorts introduced, it would be vain to institute a comparison between the choicest flower garden of that date and one of our own time. But there is one point on which the author leaves us in the dark ; I mean the respective beds or situations in which the vegetables and herbs and flowers are to be placed. It is true that he has given a general plan in a woodcut, of which I subjoin a copy, and which it will amuse the readers of this Journal to decipher and ex- plain. Mil|||i!i|itll|.| Mllliil!llilllilliiil!lli!lli aiAi|yp^- , , WlilllllliliaillllllllilllM X^i'i . nil Miiiliiiii.l iiiiiiu. iiilii II .1 ii:iiiiiimiiiiiii..ii iliiiM iMiiiim, iiMiihi.m,,iiiiiii,,i mmimw iiiiiiiiiii.ii \\\ ,.3 a There is no need, however, for us to assume this to be the only plan to be carried out. The general principles of the sys- tem are quite enough for our purpose, and for bringing before the reader's imagination the prevailing fashion of those days. Whether the vegetables and herbs or the flowers were placed nearest to the house it is difficult to decide, and, indeed, is of very little consequence ; for beyond having pretty flowers in certain seasons, there seems nothing to redeem the offensive ugliness of the whole design. The moderate space of ground assigned to the garden and pleasure portion altogether, the for- mal herbers, the rigidly straight and carefully sanded alleys, the equally straight and formal walks, the oblong and peculiarly formal beds, are features quite sufficiently commanding in their repulsiveness to prevent any arrangement of the most beautiful flowers within those formal spaces from yielding delight to the eye. But each of those beds in which flowers were cultivated IN THE ELIZABETHAN AGE. 7 was made the scene of an arrangement as unnatural as the ground-plan of the wliole garden itself. This system long pre- vailed ; so long that Milton could not resist giving a condemna- tory allusion to it in his description of Paradise. Pie speaks of — " Flow'rs worthy of Paradise, which not nice art In beds and curious knots, but nature boon Poured forth profuse on hill and dale and plain." I refer to the curious k7iots of flowers which first appeared in print in Mountain's work, and for variations in which ingenuity was taxed to the utmost. Nothing, indeed, can prove moi'e clearly the degree in which this art was prized than the fact that a pamphlet was published in the year 1623, called "Knots for Gardens," and the title in full runs thus : — " Certaine excellent and new-invented Knots and Mazes for plots for Gardens, by which you may truly learne the art of drawing out any Knot according to the plot of your Garden, be it never so bigg ; the like not yet published in our language by any author what- soever." Each page after this title is devoted to a woodcut of some peculiar, and then thought, beautiful knot. Some of the ugliest among them are thus headed: — "A curious Knot;" " A rare Knot for a fine Garden ;" "A flourishing Knot ;" and *' A curious fine Knot." It would have occupied too much space to have given for insertion copies of these woodcuts ; but some of the other headings are very singular, and I should like very much to see if any knot designed from some of these headings alone would be intelligible, or at all like the respective woodcuts, to which the headings are pre- fixed. For example, one knot is described as " the triangular square," another as " the square of diamonds," and a third as "a square triangular or circular." A knot in the shape of a circular square would entitle the author to the honour of liaving accomplished what has been imagined an impossible feat — the squaring of the circle. But imagine this system fully carried out in all its variety — a rare knot covering the surface of each flower-bed — and we come nearer still to a general idea of the whole effect. Certainly the absurdity of formality could not go much beyond this point. It might have been hoped that nature, however cramped within the whole surface laid out, might have been allowed to luxuriate freely within each of these small nar- row beds. But the same formal system reigns even there : and so in every particular division, as well as over tlie whole plan, formality, straight lines, angles, squares, triangles, and oblongs, rule supreme. It would be a mistake, however, to imagine that these are the only beauties, although it must be confessed that they were the 8 ARRANGEMENT OF GARDENS AND PLEASURE-GROUNDS predominant ones. Among other things it may be observed, that from the earliest work on the subject to the time of Bridgman and Kent no publication of any pretension was without a wood- cut of a maze. Indeed a garden without a maze would scarcely have deserved the name. There is certainly no harm in this feature of a garden taken simply as a source of amusement. In- deed one old author frankly confesses this to be their main ob- ject. " Mazes," he says, " well framed — a man's height — may perhaps make your friend wander in gathering of berries till he cannot recover himself without your helpe." But a maze might quite as well be placed in some other part of the grounds, for assuredly to the eye of the elevated spectator it yiehls no ob- ject of beauty — it affords no pleasure, but the amusement caused by seeing a very eager and earnest fellow-creature bewildered in an especial quandary. That was one of the Elizabethan garden beauties then : add to it a bowling-green and a place for " a paire of buttes to stretch the armes," and that feature of the arrange- ment is complete — that portion, I mean, which supplies pleasure of a certain sort — but pleasure quite apart from that which springs from the sight of garden and grounds tastefully laid out. There was another sort of beauty however, or rather combination of beauties, which was thought indispensable. This was the intro- duction of works of art to embellish the scene ; or, as the same author candidly says, " the showing what nature corrected by art can do." He gives us in a few words a general idea of what was seen and admired in tliose days : and the concluding passage proves how warm the admiration of such objects must have been : " When you behold in divers corners of your orchard mounts of stone, or wood curiously wrought within and without, or of earth (covered with fruit-trees) with staires of precious workmanship: and in some corner or more a sun-diall or clocke, and some an- tique works, and especially silver-sounding musique, sweet instru- ments, and voices gracing all the rest — how will you be rapt with delight I" Bacon's ' Essay on Gardens ' fully proves my assertions on these and other points, as well by the practices which he con- demns and would abolish, as by those which he would continue and make more extravagant. Some trivialities he censures, thereby proving their then existence. " I, for my part, do not like images cut in juniper or other garden stuff; they be for children." ..." As for the making of knots or figures — they be but toys : you may see as good sights many times in tarts." But in some other respects, while his main views were greatly in advance of his age, he is guilty of as marked absurdity as William Lawson. For he will have the formal mount and artificial work more bizarre than even that enthusiastic wortiiy could suggest. His IN THE ELIZABETHAN AGE. 9 arches in carpenter's work surrounding' the garden — on each arch a turret with belly enough to receive a cage of bii-ds — over every space between the arches some other little figure with broad plates of round-coloured glass, gilt, for the sun to play upon — his favourite fountain, with its bottom finely paved, and with images, the sides likewise — and withal embellished with coloured glass and such thing's of lustre ; all these features and more besides, preserved from existing taste or carried to a greater extent, while they surprise us as coming from such a man, show clearly the nature of the taste laid down by Mountain and advo- cated by Lawson and othei's of the same date. I should have mentioned, that in all the points established by Mountain, Law- son fully agrees. I have only selected some of those which he notices, but which do not appear in Mountain's work. Perhaps, however, the following woodcut from Lawson will speak for itself, as delineating his chef-d'ceuvre, the more especially as an explanation of the portions indicated by letters is attached to it. So ends this explanation. And, as in the case of Mountain's specimen, without assuming this woodcut to be anything more than a general representation of the principles adopted in laying out grounds at that period, we have enough, in conjunction with the letter-press descriptions given in the same and other works, to enable a person to form a just idea of the whole system. Ima- gine yourself looking down from a window in the mansion upon ground laid out in this manner. Grant that in a few cases, although but a few, there may have been terraces and balustrades and steps : except to an eye that can delight in nothing but angu- lar forms and combinations, no scene could possibly appear more unnatural. But when you stretch your gaze beyond the herbers, and alleys, and walks, and oblong beds, and mathematically ar- ranged knots, and the heavy garden wall, to the undulating sur- face of the park studded with noble trees, varied by moving objects, and rendered more beautiful by the stream or the lake — the contrast must have been more painful still to a man of true taste. He would be struck with wonder at the thought that the inmates of such a mansion could go on viewing such a prospect for years and years in perfect contentment, without an effort to create beautiful scenes immediately about the walls of their home. It is true that Bacon, however encumbered by tawdri- ness and littlenesses his views were in part, ventured to throw out ideas far beyond the notions of his age — ideas which fairly entitled him to be termed the prophet of landscape gardening. In its main principles his essay presents almost as great a con- trast to the then existing system as was found in Nature herself. At all events the superiority of those principles is too manifest 10 ARRANGEMENT OF GARDENS AND PLEASURE-GROUNDS ' A. All these squares must 1)6 set with trees ; the gardens and other ornaments must stand in spaces be- tween the trees, and in the borders and fences. B. Trees twenty yards asunder. C. A garden -knot. D. Kitchen garden. E. Bridge. F. Conduit. G. Stairs. H. Walks" set out with great wood thicke. I. Walks set with great wood round about your orchard. K. The out-fence. L. The out- fence set with stone front. M. Mount. To force eartli for a mount or such like, set it round with quicke, and lay boughs of trees, strangely intermingled — tops inward — with the earth in the middle. N. Still-house. O. Good standing for trees if you have an house. P. If the river run by your door and under your mount, it will be pleasant, R The River." IN THE ELIZABETHAN AGE. 1] to be doubted. It was starting at one bound from forming a framework of mere angular curiosities or of mosaic, to the paint- ing of a charming landscape, even though marred by some faults or defects in design and in execution. For on the merits of his general conception there cannot, I conceive, be two opinions. He would have the space allotted for this purpose to be thirty- acres at least — a vast advance from the pettiness of the old sys- tem. This middle ground between the mansion and Nature's own scenery he would thus divide : — four acres nearest to the house he would have formed into a lawn, to refresh the eye and yield a pleasurable spot for contemplation : immediately beyond this would lie the main garden of twelve acres, the favourite flowers and plants for which he carefully specifies : on each side of the lawn and main garden there would run a strip of four acres devoted to covered alleys and to walks, which however, it is manifest, would not be obtrusive objects in the prospect : and beyond the whole what he terms a heath — which however from his own words, " I wish this to be framed as much as may be in a natural vvildness," and from his having no trees in it, but only shrubs and plants and flowers disposed irregularly, he clearly designed to soften and smooth down the abrupt transition from the cultivated and ornamented to the wild and natural scenery. Add to this his condemnation of knots and figures, and of clipped trees, in these plain words : — " I, for my part, do not like images cut out in juniper and other garden stuff: they be for children ;" and you see that he would remove two of the chief sources of ugliness in the prevailing system. And then bear in mind that he would have fountains to vary the scene still more ; and the imagination can pretty well bring before its view a garden so laid out, and appreciate with some degree of accuracy the im- mense superiority of such taste over the petty, the formal, the angular, the gingerbread, fashionable style of the age in which he lived. But if Bacon were a prophet of enlarged views and foretelling beautiful scenes, he was only a prophet. He could only speak of what he would wish to have done. Fashion was too strong for him to change her character or subdue her power. He could only consign to posterity the task of carrying out his designs, stripping them of all encumbering tawdriness, enlarging their beauties, and making them complete. I may say here, that a century elapsed before a real practical blow was struck at the old fashion, and it was only by the successive efforts of Bridg- man, Kent, Shenstone, Wheatley, Brown, and Repton, that what- ever faults and mannerisms might occasionally, and for a time only, be inti'oduced, landscape gardening came to be what it ought to be, and what in its main features it is — as far removed from the false fashion of the Elizabethan age as it could by 12 ARRANGEMENT OF GARDENS AND PLEASURE-GROUNDS securing the most tasteful concentration within a given space of the greatest beauties of nature and art. Glancing back upon this concise description of that assuredly false fashion, I should imagine that no enthusiast — nay, no mo- nomaniacal enthusiast — in favour of the Elizabethan style in architecture, would seriously press, as an accompaniment to the revival of that style, the resuscitation of tlie fasliion in gardening. The truth is that such a notion involves too many contradictions in taste and absurdities in fact to be tolerated by any rational man. In the first place (while it is quite true that there can be no dis- puting about tastes, and that, as a matter of riglit, every man may be to his own taste, just as he has a right to cut off liis own nose, and look very ugly as a necessary consequence), what unavoidable connexion is tliere between the peculiar style of building invented in one particular age, and the style of {gardening which happened to have grown into a certain fashion at that same period ? For it is obvious, that then, as now and always, new houses were built in grounds long previously laid out and kept up. It should be borne in mind moreover, that the earliest work quoted by me, which passed through several editions during a considerable course of years, is much more a record of then existing fashion than a treatise propounding a new theory. And the truth is, that all which was cared for, even before the first mansion in the Elizabethan style was erected, was the enjoyment of certain limited out-door comforts and pleasures near the house: all that was effected was as wretched a rule and line arrangement of that small space of ground as ever libelled the taste of an educated man. There is no more connecting link between the house and the garden of that age as to character than between a Grecian temple and a Chinese garden — an Italian palace and Westmore- land scenery — a Saxon liomestead and Hampton Court gardens — the modern polka and the venerable minuet de la cour. In the next place, on what principle is it asserted that the ground around the house must be forced into a similarity of style with it, even allowing that such connexion of style did really exist ? It is clear that the ground in Elizabeth's time seldom or never formed any part of the architect's design : he took it as he found it : or, if he did not build among grounds already laid out, they were arranged afterwards according to the existing fashion, having no respect to the arcliitecture. The principle, liowever, which is really involved is this : — Are the grounds and scenery around a mansion to be laid out in an ugly fashion, merely be- cause that ugly fashion existed when the revived style of archi- tecture was first designed ; or because tlie one is assumed to be in harmony witli tlie other? or, on the other hand, is the archi- tecture itself to be in harmony with the general character of the IN THE ELIZABETHAN AGE. 13 whole scenery around — leaving the pleasure-grounds and garden adjoining the house to be laid out on the sound principles of landscape gardening — principles, be it observed, whicli are equally sound in respect to every mansion in every style ? Now the connexion of style I have shown not to exist ; and I should be not only enlightened but amazed if any ingenious person could prove that the ground-plan of an Elizabethan garden, such as in its main features I believe myself to have correctly de- scribed it, is in any harmony whatever with the style of the Elizabethan mansion. I do not wish it proved to have been peculiarly so ; I ask it to be proved in any respect and at all. The plain incontestable fact is, that such a garden in such a style is more in harmony with a plain square brick-built house of no style whatever — the angles in the garden, however, giving a relief to the square solidity of the house ; and it is equally plain that as taste was at an equally low ebb in all classes who were able to indulge it, the same bad taste prevailed everywhere alike. Of the other principle — That the style of the architecture should be adapted to tlie general character of the whole natural scenery, I think that no man can doubt the correctness. Of the magnitude of the building — that is, the having a proper regard to the proportion of the space, and the grandeur, or calm beauty of the scenery in which it is to stand — there can be as little he- sitation. Repton's observations on these matters appear exceed- ingly judicious ; and if the principle in question be correct, the laying out of the ground between the mansion and the external scenery, on the universal principles of landscape-gardening, with only subordinate regard to the style of the mansion, is clear as the sun at noon-day. Repton is writing on the inappro- priateness of the Grecian style of architecture to large mansions in the country : and he thus goes on : — " Plaving expressed these ob- jections against the application of Grecian architecture, before I describe any other style of house, I shall introduce some remarks on a subject which lias much engaged my attention, viz. — the adaptation of buildings not only to the situation, character, and circumstances of the scenery, but also to the purposes for which they are intended ; and this I shall call characteristic archi- tecture." It is needless for me to introduce here his arguments on this adaptation of the style of the building to the scenery amidst which it is erected. The case stood thus : — The Elizabethan style had fallen into desuetude in his time, and therefore is not alluded to, beyond his referring in another place to the palaces of that age, without regard, however, to the surrounding scenery. He had to determine between the Grecian and the Gothic styles as to which was on the whole best adapted to the rural scenery 14 ARRANGEMENT OF GARDENS AND PLEASURE-GROUNDS of England. He concludes, and, I venture to say, on very good grounds, in favour of the Gothic style ; restricting, however, its use mainly to the external appearance of the building ; and, as to internal arrangements, retaining its peculiarities only when designing the hall, chapel, and galleries. It is obvious that the same preference, limited by the same restrictions, should be assigned on the same grounds to the Elizabethan over the Gre- cian. But what is the main principle here involved and success- fully vindicated ? The principle, that the style of the house is to be made in harmony (as near as possible) with the character of the scenery, and not the scenery to be changed, as a supposed matter of consequence, so as to be in harmony with the style of the house. I repeat, that I do not know of such a connexion ever having existed artistically — I mean, that I never yet heard of the Doric style of landscape-gardening, or the Tuscan, or the Corinth- ian, or the Gothic, or the Saxon, or the Norman, as necessarily bound up with the corresponding styles in architecture. All that is contended for is, that the character of the scenery around shall be paramount in deciding the style of the building which it surrounds. And if this be true in principle, it is equally so in degree. I am aware that there are many subordinate points of considerable importance to be kept in view ; but these do not affect the general truth either in principle or in degree. And that principle is true not only of the wide range of scenery that you view from every side of the mansion, but of every inch of ground, even to the foot of its walls. As the eye falls nearer home, the beauties must be more and more concentrated ; but still the system must not be all straight lines, and angles, and mathematical forms ; it must not be strait-laced into an un- healthy uniformity or a diseased regularity; it must bring together, even within the narrowest and most confined view, a combination of the fairest beauties of nature and the most graceful efforts of art. Take the opposite opinion as just. Assert that you must attach an Elizabethan garden to a mansion built in the Eliza- bethan style, and you have no choice left but to bind the whole scenery around in the same mathematical shackles ; you have no alternative but to imprint the same formal design on the whole space between your house and the horizon on every side. Very beautiful, of course, tlie effect would be ; not at all expen- sive, nor at all impossible ! I am very far, however, from asserting that no points in this system are good, or that none of them should ever be introduced, even around a mansion not built in the Elizabethan style. But wherever introduced, they must be regarded as the exception, not as the rule — as the foils which make beauty more charming ; not as being in themselves intrinsically beautiful. The winding IN THE ELIZABETHAN AGE. 15 paths in a pleasure-ground are certainly not the l^ss delightful because they branch out from the broad expanse of the straight promenade. The curve-shaped beds, filled with irregular groups of flowers, do not the less please by their graceful outline be- cause they are studded over the even-sided lawn. And so in every case. The occasional introduction of the regular and the formal can have no other effect than that of enhancing the eflTect of the irregular and the informal — those characteristics of the true line of beauty — those main and commanding features of Na- ture herself. Art, and the works of art, may further enhance the beauty of the whole scene ; but to revive the Elizabethan gardening as a whole, and in all its principles, would be like reviving the pedantry of that age as well as its learning — its euphuism as well as its pure old prose and splendid poetry — its rude and coarse social customs as well as its chivalrous spirit ; and would be in each of these cases as in all, a clear offence against good taste. II. — A short Account of Col. F€ildi7ig^s Coryanth (^Coryanthes Feildi7igii).^ By the Vice-Secretary. In August, 1847, Col. Feilding sent me for examination a flower of a Coryanth, which is so remarkable as to deserve a notice at some length. The plant was purchased of Mr. Atkins, of Northampton, in 1842, its origin being unknown. It flowered at Street Aston in 1844; in 1845 it was again showing for flower, but missed in consequence of its removal to Lonclon ; in 1847 it finally pro- duced the extraordinary blossoms wliich are the subject of the annexed figures. As usual in this genus the flowers are pendulous and inverted, so that the apparatus of the column hangs downwards instead of being erect. The general colour of the parts is pale brownish yellow, a little mottled and stained with cinnamon in an irre- gular manner. When closed, the flower is about five inches long and three wide. As it unfolds, the sepals and petals, which are membranous and bear no small resemblance to bats' wings, turn back, seem to fold up, and finally hang drooping at the back of the lip and column, in which organs, as is well known, the sin- gularity of the genus resides. The lip is borne by a thick horizontal arm an inch and a half long, which proceeds from the top of the flower -stalk, and con-' * C. Feildingii ; hypochilio stipitato convexo sub-compresso calvo basi tomentoso, mesochilio plicato et verrucoso, epichilio galeato sub-quadrato rotundato lobis lateralibus uncinatis intermedio trancato erecto. — J. L. 16 ACCOUNT OF COL. FEILDING'S CORYANTH. ^Coryanthes Feildingii {front view). ACCOUNT OF COL. FEILDING'S CORYANTH. 17 Coryanthes Feildingii (^hacli vieip). VOL. rrr. 18 ON THE CONTINUED CULTIVATION OF WHEAT. sequently from the lower end of the column. Right and left of its base are placed two softisli flesliy pale ear-liUe lobes, which are organs of secretion, a sweet fluid continually dripping from them as long as the flower is in vigour. At the other end this horizontal arm expands into a convex cap or hood, hairy in front but bald on the crown; a little compressed from the back, and two inches across in its principal diameter. From the cap hangs down a large fleshy goblet smooth at the edges, flattened at the end, two inches deep and as many wide, and connected with the cap by a hollowed fleshy stalk, which is strongly marked by various transverse fleshy folds, warts, and ridges ; into tliis goblet drips the honey, secreted by the two ears at the base of the horizontal arm which carries the lip. On the "side next the column the goblet is opened, and near the bottom of this opening it is fur- nished with three fleshy sharp-pointed lobes, of wliich tlie lateral curve downwards and the middle one stands erect, rising just high enough to come in contact with tlie liead of the column, which grows downwards so far as almost to touch it. The column is a large fleshy club-shaped body two inches and a half long, and throwing back its head till its bosom becomes so round and large as to be comparable to the breast of a " puffer " pigeon. The head of the column divides into two short flat fleshy curved arms, between which the anther is seated. This extraordinary species is perfectly distinct from Cory- anthes macrantha, not only in size, but in the form of the cap, its hairiness, the truncated termination downwards of the goblet, and the plaits or tubercles that occur on tlie stalk of the latter. Its flower is the largest yet known among orchids. III. — Memorandum of an Experiment on the Continued Cul- tivation of Wheat, in the Gardens of the Horticidtural Society. By Edward Solly, F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry to the Society. (Communicated Oct. 23, 1847.) In the year 1843 a portion of ground in the Experimental Garden of the Horticultural Society was sown with Talavera spring wheat, and manured with a series of different saline sub- stances. It was proposed to continue the cultivation of wheat for several seasons in the same ground, and with the same manures, applied precisely as the first year ; the crop obtained each year being not only carefully measured, but likewise pre- served, in order that it might subsequently be submitted to chemical examination, should it appear desirable. This experi- ON THE CONTINUED CULTIVATION OF WHEAT. 19 ment has now been continued five years, and one or two interest- ing facts have been observed during its progress ; though it was rather to be regretted that the soil in which the wheat was grown was too well manured previous to the commencement of the experiment. It is hardly necessary to observe that the whole experiment was intended as one purely horticultural, or rather even, chemical ; and that the results obtained cannot be con- sidered as giving at all accurate information as to the agricul- tural value of the salts employed as manure. The general results of the experiment will be seen in the following Table, which shows the whole weight of crop obtained each year per rood : — Manure Used. 1. Phosphate of Ammonia, 3 lbs. 2. Sulphate of Soda, 3 lbs. . . 3. Common Salt, 3 lbs. . , 4. Muriate of Ammonia, 3 lbs. 5. Phosphate of Lime, -lilbs. . 6. Muriate of Potash, 3 lbs. 7. No Manure 8. Sulphate of Lime, 4i lbs. 9. Sulphate of Ammonia, :i lbs. 10. Sulphate of Magnesia, 3 lbs. 1 1. Sulphate of Potash, 3 lbs. . 12. Nitrate of Soda, 3 lbs. . . 1843. 1844. lbs. oz. 49 33 13 46 11 53 1 46 51 9 35 7 54 3 52 3 49 11 44 10 50 12 lbs. oz. 34 10 35 2 37 15 37 9 37 15 35 36 4 43 8 1845. 1846. lbs. oz. 30 11 30 3 40 11 39 12 28 11 38 1 37 30 11 36 4 31 39 10 26 8 lbs. oz. 41 1 36 10 32 8 46 12 32 13 30 42 14 41 9 46 2 SI 12 39 8 41 1847. lbs. oz. 45 4 43 37 4 46 25 3 35 14 38 3 60 44 4 37 8 39 11 41 It appears from this table that in the first year the production of vegetable matter was increased by all the salts employed, excepting only the sulphate of soda. This effect fell off more and more in each succeeding year, for in 1844 sulphate and nitrate of soda, muriate of potash, and phosphate of ammonia gave less crops than the ground with no manure; in 1845 we find sulphate and nitrate of soda, sulphate of magnesia, sulphate of potash, sulphate and phosphate of ammonia, and sulphate of lime apparently doing harm; and in 1846 the ground with no manure gave a better crop than any of the others, excepting those manured with muriate and sulphate of ammonia. The fifth year, however, more nearly resembles the second, for in it seven of the salts appeared to do good, viz., phosphate, sulphate, and muriate of ammonia, sulphate of soda, lime and potash, and nitrate of soda. On comparing together the total produce of each manure, during the whole five years, it will be found that the entire quantity of vegetable matter had been increased in every case, excepting where phosphate of lime and sulphate of soda were employed as manure. In the preceding Table the entire quantity of straw and grain c 2 20 ON THE CONTINUED CULTIVATION OF WHEAT. together, produced in each experiment, is stated. The follow- ing exhibits the quantity of grain obtained from each crop, per rood : — Manure Used. 1843. 1844. 1843. 1846. 1847. Mean. lbs. oz. lbs. oz. lbs. oz. lbs. oz. lbs. oz. lbs. oz. 1 . Phosphate of Ammonia, 3 lbs. 10 10 6 13 1 13 12 10 10 15 8 9 2. Sulphate of Soda, 3 lbs. . . 8 2 7 5 2 5 11 13 12 8 8 6 3. Common Salt, 3 lbs. . . . 13 8 9 10 2 10 11 3 11 6 9 10 4. Muriate of Ammonia, 3 lbs. . 19 9 7 6 2 12 16 10 11 4 11 8 5. Phosphate of Lime, 4i lbs. . U 4 8 5 2 11 11 10 8 8 6 G. Muriate of Potash, 3 lbs. . , 13 10 9 12 3 2 10 7 9 4 9 3 7. No Manure 7 10 7 13 4 14 15 6 11 14 9 8 8. Sulphate of Lime, 4i lbs. . . 14 9 11 3 10 14 3 15 4 11 5 9. Sulphate of Ammonia, 3 lbs. . 12 6 9 2 4 8 14 10 11 11 10 7 10. Sulpliate of Magnesia, 31bs. . 12 11 3 14 10 9 11 9 11 11. Sulphate of Potash, 3 lbs. 10 11 8 6 5 7 13 9 11 5 9 14 12. Nitrate of Soda, 3 lbs. . . . 11 10 3 14 3 9 12 14 10 12 8 6 On comparing this table with the first one, it will be found that the same general result appears with regard to the grain as was noticed respecting the entire crop ; namely, tliat the good effect produced by the various salts the first year does not continue to the third and fourth year ; but in the case of the grain, they seem to produce but little effect after the second year. In the first year, each of the eleven salts employed increased the yield of grain ; in the second year, only seven of them, namely, the phospliate and sulphate of lime, sulphate of ammonia, muriate and sulpliate of potash, sulphate of magnesia, and common salt ; in the third year, only one salt, the sulphate of potash ; in the fourth year, only the muriate of ammonia ; and in the fifth year, the sulphates of lime and of soda. It is evident, tlierefore, that the effect produced in the fifth year by seven of the salts em- ployed was only an increase of straw, and did not also indicate a corresponding increase of grain. In order more completely to exhibit this, the results of the two preceding tables have been reduced into the following one, which shows the proportion of grain to the whole produce; the numbers given showing the proportion of grain in 1000 parts. Manure Used. 1843. 1844. 1845. 1846. 1847. 1. Phosphate of Ammonia, 3 lbs. 2. Sulphate of Soda, 3 lbs. . . 216 240 289 368 244 264 215 258 239 241 239 229 313 337 299 297 210 263 327 330 287 233 286 321 57 69 64 69 82 82 133 1113 120 111 137 132 307 322 344 355 363 347 358 341 317 332 346 314 241 3. Common Salt, 3 lbs. . . . 4. Muriate of .\mmonia, 3 lbs. . .'). Phosphate of Lime, 4^ lbs. . 6. Muriate of Potash, 3 lbs. 305 244 317 237 8. Sulphate of Lime, H lbs. . 9. Sulphate of Ammonia, 3 lbs. 10. Sulphate of Ma^'nesia, 3 lbs. 11. Sulphate of Potash, 3 lbs. . 12. Nitrate of Soda, albs. . . 230 264 293 284 262 ON THE CONTINUED CULTIVATION OF WHEAT. 21 By this table it is evident that the only manure which in- creased the proportion of grain during the two last years was the phosphate of lime ; whilst the only salts which increased the whole produce in both these years were the sulphate and muri- ate of ammonia. The manures used in these experiments were sown broad-cast over the ground when the wheat was about four or five inches high, and the effect which they produced on the growth of the plants was very marked ; it generally became most apparent a week or two before the plants came into ear. The salts of ammonia and tlie nitrate of soda caused the wheat to grow rapidly and luxuriantly, and gave the plants a dark green colour. Generally, however, the effect of the manure seemed to go off before the time of flowering, and to produce little or no effect at the time of ripening the grain. The sulphate and phosphate of lime, on the other hand, though they produced very little if any effect at the time of application, evidently influenced the wheat beneficially at the end of the season, when the grain was filling. From this it might be concluded that a better result, as far as the production of grain was concerned, would be obtained by employing a mixture of a salt of lime and a salt of ammonia, than by using either alone ; and this, no doubt, would hold good on all soils like that of the Horticultural Gardens, containing but little lime. From the fact just stated, that the ammoniacal manures seemed to lose all effect after a few weeks, it was naturally supposed that, in consequence of the easy solubility of the salts, the whole or greater part of them had in that period been either washed away by the rains or absorbed by the plants. That this, how- ever, was not the case, is proved by the following cui-ious fact : — In the spring of 1845, 1846, and 1847, when the wheat had nearly attained the size at which the manures were to be applied, but still previous to any application whatever, it was very easy to see where the ammoniacal salts and the nitrate of soda had been used the preceding year, as there the wheat was more forward, and the blade had a darker colour and more healthy appearance, than elsewhere. This proved that the diminished influence produced by the manures could not be due to their exhaustion, as enough remained in the soil some months after- wards, and when the soil had been exposed to half a year's rains, to produce a marked effect on the next year's crop. 22 THE POTATO, ITS CONDITION IN 1847. IV. — Tlt£ Potato, its Condition in 1847. By George John Towers, C.M.H.8. (Commuuicated Aug. 16, 1847.) Having stated in the last volume of the Journal the results of my own experience and observations during the year 1846, I feel called upon to offer a few remarks in continuation. The dis- ease, which beyond all doubt ravaged the crop to a very alarm- ing extent during two entire seasons, is evidently on the decline ; at all events the period is now passed at which it was in active operation ; and as moreover the crops everywhere, which I have been able to inspect, are healthy, and gradually assuming the yellow tint that precedes maturity, without the appearance of one single black spot, I think we may, without presumption, indulge a hopeful expectation. Of proximate causes it should seem that, in reality, we know nothing ; yet, perhaps, while col- lating the evidence of facts, some light may be obtained Avhich will guide us in our future operations, and obviate those errors in practice, which assuredly have concurred to aggravate, if not originate, the malady. During the whole of the spring of 1 846, every fact seemed to prove that the presence of disease in the tuber of 1845 did not interfere with the sprouting of the plant : by disease I mean that discoloration or marbling of the tissue which, without affecting the vitality of the eyes, so changed the condition of the tuber as to destroy its culinary qualities. Numbers of such potatoes were committed to the ground uncut, and many — proved by the knife to be so diseased — were planted as sets, expressly with a view to ascertain whether or not a sound progeny could be obtained from a tainted stock. I stated the results of such experiments ; I even found that from a mass shot down in a heap from a barrow — a great portion of which was in a state of putrescent decay — numbers of apparently healthy shoots were produced, the whole of which 'continued strong and verdant several days after the general attack had taken effect — that is from about the 25th July to the end of the first week of August, 1846. It will, how- ever, be perfectly useless to dwell upon the symptoms or pro- gress of the malady of that year ; but not so the allusion to the two undeniable facts. 1st. That a disease had for many years prevailed in the northern counties which was termed the rot of the potato. Many articles appeared in the newspapers and in the agricultural periodicals of the period, dating its commence- ment about the year 1833 ; and some of these I replied to, as I had failed to discover any sign of decay among the plots of the midland or southern districts. It was stated that blanks and THE POTATO, ITS CONDITION IN 1847. 23 patches occurred in the rows : that upon investigation it was seen that the sets planted had either disappeared, or were reduced to a mass of putridity. But no complaint of spot, or decay of the herbage and stems, or of any peculiar smell of decomposing vegetable matter, was made till the epidemic of 1845 was established. 2nd. The crop of 1846, though to a very alarming extent affected, was reduced more by drought than by disease. They who planted for themselves and waited the results, must be aware that, as from the 20th of May to the 22nd of June, no rain fell, and that a blazing sun, rarely obscured by a cloud, had poured its fiery beams upon the surface of the ground, daily, for about 14 hours, vegetation must have been fatally checked. Young tubers were produced, and brought to precocious maturity — some showers came at midsummer, and stimulated these tubers — a second progeny was developed ; and thus, as in every similar case, both became valueless : I dug up my early and second early varieties from ground dry as dust ; the lime that I had placed about the sets at planting remaining white and powdery as when deposited ; the produce was two and three little potatoes to a set, not in the whole averaging three times the weight of the seed. Disease there then was none ; but as the season of vegetation had thus been lost, the entire stock was re- duced far below par : I record this fact with the sole view of correcting a mistake which prevailed at the time of digging, and to prove the consolatory truth that disease had not existed in a more aggravated form than it did in 1845 ; but that, on the contrary, its virulence had abated. In a word, had tliere not been one diseased leaf in the land, the produce of 1846, as a whole, could not have amounted to the half of an average crop ! Every circumstance of this singular visitation admitted, how- ever, of some exception ; and therefore the last observation must be received as applying chiefly to the South, where drought prevailed. Scotland had more rain, and there the disease proved more malignant than in 1845. There is also reason to believe that it travelled progressively ; leaving, or becoming milder in, one locality, and visiting another ; thus in some degree re- sembling the advances of the Asiatic cholera. I now come to the present year 1847; in which, though un- questionably there have arisen from time to time threatening symptoms (very partial and arbitrary), yet they have assumed a new form and type. Thus we were told of the cracking or abrasion of the cuticle* underground, with discoloration of the parts from which the tuber-bearing processes proceed. Some of these I saw, and attached to one of them was a minute tuber, which appeared slightly affected. I was called to inspect a 24 THE POTATO, ITS CONDITION IN 1847. five-acre plot in a field at Waddon Marsh, where some of the leaves began to look yellow and drooping; this was about the 10th of June. Not one spot, or any other symptom, above or below the soil, could be detected ; but it was remembered that a partial hoar-frost had been observed on the seventh morning after that singularly piercing cold day of the 6th ; and thus the effects observed were fully accounted for. I repeated my obser- vations after several intervals ; the plants grew well and pros- pered ; so that during July the owner sold tiie potatoes for 251. per acre; they were the early Shaw's. Everywhere about Croydon, and many miles around, potatoes had been planted: I examined every plot in field or garden tliat I could approach, and made all possible inquiries where I could not inspect. Market and gentlemen's gai'deners, salesmen, farmers, all were in one tale ; their evidence was consentient ; and this was borne out by the products, speedily and abundantly brought to the shops, By letters from Gloucestershire and Hertfordshire I was informed that the potatoes were " rotting in the ground ;" that a curl of the leaf indicated a certain destruction of the lower stem, which existed to a very threatening extent. After a few weeks these parties, my correspondents, wrote again to say ; one — that the potatoes " were doing well ;" the other — that there was much amendment, and that the attack was only partial ! At the present time (the l5th of August being past) I have found no reason to alter the opinion which I had long formed of the gradual but certain abatement of the malady. A gentleman called on the above-named day ; he had just returned from Germany and Russia : in those countries there is abundance — no thought or fear of disease remains ; in a word, general fer- tility, particularly in fruit, is manifest to an extraordinary extent. These truths induce me, while I disclaim any assumption of knowledge, to offer the following suggestions, to which f would premise an earnest recommendation that every gardener do atten- tively peruse the two essays on the potato — its disease, cure, and treatment, by Mr. Jasper Rogers of Dublin ; for although the exceedingly wide diff'usion of the disease in the years 1845-6 may excite some doubt of the validity of arguments which apply to local treatment, yet so unquestionable are the truths he ap- peals to, that if some perplexity remain, we cannot fail to profit by duly attending to his advice. Disease, or rather debility, the result of disease, still exists ; and though, as we have j^roved, diseased tubers have produced strong plants, yet, as the Prize Essay in a late number of the Royal Agricultural .Journal demonstrably showed, tlie propaga- tion by tainted seed must contribute to tlie maintenance of a diseased condition. That millions of tubers more or less in- THE POTATO, ITS CONDITION IN 1847. 25 fected were planted, must be acknowledged ; how then is it pos- sible that we should now escape ? As debility has followed as an inevitable result, we ought to take a retrospective view of our treatment of tlie potato ! Have not the pits and stores been formed upon the most erroneous systems ? Have not heat and moisture during the entire winter excited the tuber to premature activity ; and as a consequence (so argues Mr. Rogers), lias not the seed-stock in almost every instance been planted in a state of exhaustion ? A few sound ash-leaved and other early varieties, preserved expressly, may have been planted sound, every eye dormant, not one vitalized development pre-excited ; but, as concerns the later winter stores, have not the planted tubers in nine cases out of ten produced strings from several of the eyes, which have matted one into the other for many feet in length ? All these developments having been nourished by the tuber, are broken otf as refuse, and the tuber thus exhausted, and its tissue rendered flaccid, is, forsooth, planted as seed ! Such is and has been for years the mode of practice throughout Britain, perhaps throughout the world. Can we then wonder that an organism so treated should suc- cumb under a peculiar meteorological epidemic, which though veiled in mystery afforded ample proofs of its existence ? If we admit a consciousness of ill-treatment on our part, would it not evince a more wise and pious state of mind to con- sider the late alarming dispensation as a blessing in disguise, rather than to ascribe it to the judgment of Heaven ? "VVe have erred — our errors have led to certain consequences — let us learn wisdom, and henceforward treat our comforts and mercies as blessings to be cherished — not as if they were mere offal, wortliy only of the refuse-heap. Mr. Eogers and others suggest carbonised matter as the grand chemical remedy: we cannot err by applying it to the utmost attain- able extent ; and I would add, we shall obtain carbon, and do the land much service, by paring and burning in every case where por- tions of orchard or pasture land could be appropriated for potato- culture. " Try all things " — but above all, let a stock of tubers be thoroughly greened by exposure to air and light, and then be stored in a cold dry cellar, cave, or room, where no wet can enter, but from which frost only, as respects cold, should be excluded. One symptom of debility — if so it can be considered — I over- looked ; it is the absence of seed ; or, in other words, the inability of those varieties of potato which ai-e usually very fertile, to support any " apples " or seed vessels. I find my plants in full bloom ; every blossom falls off, and yet the lierbage is amazingly strong. My attention was called to the phenomenon by a very acute observer. 26 CANNON HALL MUSCAT GKAPE. Rain has at length (Aug. 16th) visited this arid and parched locality — will disease follow ? time must show ; but none remains ere this imperfect communication must be despatched to the press. V. — Memoranda respecting the Cannon Hall Muscat Grape. By Alexander "Wilson, gardener at Cannon Hall. (Communicated August 16, 1847.) It is neai'ly a quarter of a century since the Cannon Hall Muscat Grape was sent from here to the Horticultural Society, and considering that it is one of the best and largest grapes grown in this country, is it not rather strange that so few are found who give it that attention which it deserves? It is said to be a bad grower, and that it is difficult to get the fruit to set. This is partly true ; none of the Muscats set their fruit so freely as some of the other sorts under ordinary treatment : place them in a situation natural to them, and they will be found to bear fruit as freely as the Black Hamburgh. In propagating this variety, I take the ripest shoots, and cut the eye or bud out with as little wood as possible, inserting them in pots of sandy loam ; they are then plunged in a good bottom heat, and encouraged in their growth as much as possible during the early part of the season, so that the wood may be perfectly ripened by the middle of September. As soon as the leaves drop, they should be cut back to within two feet of the ground, when they may be planted, if the border is made in the inside of the house, taking care that no part of the stem is buried in the soil ; but if the border is on the outside, they should be grown another season in pots, so that the wood may be two years old before it is exposed to the weather, for I find that one year old wood is apt to damp off at tlie surface of the soil. In making the border, take care that it is not made too rich. Loam, leaf mould, and bones laid on a dry bed are all that is necessary. I have tried to force the Cannon Hall at almost all seasons of the year ; but we have always had the best crops when we did not begin before the middle of January. They may be forced earlier, but the crop will be small. Beginning witli a very gentle heat at first, keeping the house as moist as possible, and gradually raising the temperature as the growth of the vines advances, so as to have the night heat, when the vines are in blos- som, at 75^ ; and during the day 100^ is not too much, if they have a little air. The vines, if healthy, will show three or four bunches on every shoot : cut them all off but one, and stop the shoots three leaves above the bunch, nipping off with the finger and thumb any shoots that make their appearance at the axils of CANNON HALL MUSCAT GEAPE. 27 the leaves ; the bunches are large, and at the end formed like the flower of a cock's-comb, with a stem nearly as thick as the branch from which they grow, and the flowers are so thickly set on them that they have not room to expand. With a pair of sharp-pointed scissors we cut off all the little clusters of flowers in the inside of the bunch, and thin the others as soon as they separate from one another, which is generally three or four days before they open, taking care to make them thin enough ; in doing this the bunch should never be touched by the hand, and a little practice will convince any one it is unnecessary. As soon as the Grapes are fairly set they should be well thinned out, and a steady moist atmosphere kept up in the house until they are ripe. They should never be syringed, as water thrown upon the berries makes them turn black upon the sides and fall off, and this will also be the case with them if the bor- ders at any time get too wet, more especially during the time the fruit is stoning. Last year I selected three good plants of Cannon Hall Mus- cat, and plunged them in three different pits in which we grow melons ; one of tlie pits was filled with tan, the second with good oak leaves, and the third with half rotten leaves, which had been previously used in a pine pit. Tliese pits are heated by two hot- water pipes, which run along the front, and the air from tlie out- side can be made pass over them ; the atmosphere in the pits was kept as nearly as possible the same, but the bottom heat was very different. The tan soon heated to between 80 and 90 degrees ; the fresh leaves never got above 80 degrees ; and the rotten leaves had scarcely any heat in them at all ; they might be said to be neither hot nor cold until the vine began to grow, and the heat in the pits increased, when a little heat could be perceived in them about the time the vines were in blossom. All the plants grew vigorously, and one bunch was left on each plant. They were treated as I have already stated as to thinning and temperature, and I do not think there was one blossom which did not set, and when they ripened there was not one bad berry upon one of them. Those which had most bottom heat ripened the first, but the last were the finest fruit ; if, therefoi'e, the border of a vinery can be heated a little, and that heat increased as the vines advance in their growth, success will be sure. And does not this account for the eminent success of Mr. Murray, of Polmaise ? His vines are planted in the inside of the house ; and as the temperature of the house is increased, so must that of the soil, from the air being necessarily hotter which passes through the drains to the furnace, and on its way giving out heat to tlie border. In such a house the Cannon Hall Muscat may be as easily grown as the Black Hamburgh in ordinary vineries. 28 ON THE CULTIVATION OF BRITISH OBCHIDS. VI. — On the Cultivation of British Orchids. By Mr. David Cameron, CM. U.S., late Curator of the Botanic Garden, Birmingham. (Communicated Aug. 2G, 1847.) While tropical Orchids have been eagerly sought after and successfully cultivated, is it not singular that the culture of our native Orchids should be almost entirely neglected, many of them possessing as they do considerable beauty as well as singularity of form ? They are a tribe of plants which under cultivation would be highly interesting, and the more especially so as several of the species may be grown for years in the open border witli little or no care, and most of them may be preserved in pots. Some of them have fragrance to recommend them, parti- cularly Gymnadenia conopsea and Ilerminium monorchis, both of which when in quantity perfume the atmosphere for some distance — a circumstance wliich often affords a clue to their dis- covery, in the absence of which tliey might have been over- looked. The Horticultural Society in their schedule of prizes of the past season offered liberal awards for collections of native Orchids, without even stipulating the number or length of time the plants had been under cultivation, but I believe not one was exhibited. To what can this be owing? Not to want of skill to cultivate them, for the skill shown in the management of other plants proved the ability to cultivate these. But a solution of the question is to be found in the fact that the attention of tlie cultivator has not been turned in that direction. Having, how- ever, whilst residing in Surrey, within a few miles of the natural habitats of many of the species, obtained some experience in their cultivation, and having also at Birmingham continued to culti- vate with success such species as could be obtained, I am in- duced to offer some remarks on their cultivation, in hopes that it may stimulate other cultivators to bestow some attention on this truly interesting class of plants, many of which may be obtained in their own neighbourhoods, and therefore only require the trouble of digging them up. One season is possibly as good as another for gathering them, whether in flower or not ; but, on the whole, spring, at the time they are just commencing to grow, is perhaps the most favourable time, but it requires a knowledge of their places of growth to be able to find them at tliat season. At wliatever time they are got up, it is desirable to get the tuljers with as many fibrous roots as possible, and before planting to clear away all the soil carefully from them. They should be ])lanted entirely in fresh soil prepared for them, for I have found ON THE CULTIVATION OF BRITISH OECHIDS. 29 that those planted with balls of earth never thrive well or live long, owing, no doubt, to the native soil becoming sour by being inserted in tliat of a different texture. I have never found it necessary to use any chalk in the soil even for those which are natives of chalk hills. When in Surrey, charcoal was not then used as an ingredient in soils for pot-plants, but I have since found it serviceable in the culture of native Orchids ; it keeps the soil open and porous, and thereby becomes a pre- ventive of sourness and clamminess after heavy rains in winter. Charcoal should also be used in a coarse state for drainage, for their roots run freely amongst it. In watering, the system of little and often is preferable to giving a large supply at one time ; indeed more plants have perished by an over supply at one watering than by all other causes put together ; it is also bene- ficial occasionally to remove some of the top soil, and to replace it with fresh mould, so as to keep the surface pervious to air and sun. The following is a list of sorts with Avhose culture 1 have been pretty successful. Orchis Morio, L, — This is pretty generally distributed over moist clayey soils ; it requires to be kept in pots in loam and peat mixed with a little sand ; several roots may be planted in one pot, which should be well drained. They may be preserved for years if kept tolerably dry in winter and sheltered from spring- frosts. O. 7nascula, L. — grows on clay soils, chiefly in or near cop- pices, and in some places is very abundant. It does tolerably well in the open border ; if kept in pots, tlie latter should be rather large, as it makes strong roots. Pot with loam, peat, and sand, using plenty of drainage, and let the plants be kept rather dry during winter, and protected from frost in spring. O.fusca, Jacq. — I have had but little experience with this, having only received some plants when in flower last year, and without fibres left to their roots. They were potted in a mix- ture of loam, peat, and sand, with the pots well drained, and were placed in a cold frame ; they ripened tlieir leaves and stems, and again came up strongly this spring, and were doing satisfactorily until by some oversight they received a deluge of water over head and in the hearts of the leaves, which soon perished, and the tubers probably also perished soon afterwards. O. ustulata, L. — This small but pretty species is a native of dry sunny chalk-banks, and must be kept in pots at all times in a mixture of peat, loam, and sand. The pots should be well drained and placed in a cool shaded frame all the year. By a shaded frame is meant one so placed that the mid-clay sun does not reach it, and not darkened by a shading of mats. O. maculala^ L. — is one of the most common of the British 30 ON THE CULTIVATION OF BRITISH OECHIDS. species, and may be treated as a common border plant requiring no care ; it may also be cultivated in pots in a mixture of loam and a little peat, and likes a shaded situation all the year. I have grovrn it in pots for years, and occasionally have found self- sown seedlings come up in the adjoining pots : these seedlings appear to come to maturity in the second year. The seedlings of this and others come up in pots containing dwarf bushy plants, whose foliage covers the surface of the pots. O. latifolia, L. — is also a common species in wet meadows, different plants exhibiting considerable variety of colour. It succeeds well in a shaded rather damp border. It may be potted in peat mixed witli a little loam, and may be kept out of doors all the year. Seedlings which spring up in other pots have been found to come to maturity the second year. O. jiyratnidalis, L. — is a showy, rather late-flowering spe- cies. It has succeeded best in pots : the tubers being small, several may be placed in one pot. It likes loam with a little peat, and plenty of crocks. It should be placed in a cool frame, giving little water during winter. O. hircina, Scop. — This is a late-flowering, showy plant ; but, being a very rare species, I never could obtain more than one very small tuber, which was potted in loam, sand, and a little peat, and kept constantly in a frame, where it was preserved for several years, but never attained sufficient strength to flower. From what I then saw of it, I should consider it was not diffi- cult to cultivate. Plants might be obtained from France, where it is said to be more plentiful. Gymnadenia conopsea,, R. Br. — is desirable for scent as well as beauty, and will thrive in the open ground for years whei'S the soil is light. When kept in pots, it should be grown in loam, peat, and sand, mixed witli crocks, and placed out of doors all the year. This is also one of those species from which self-sown seedlings are sometimes produced. G. albida. Rich. — I never had more than one root of this, which was potted in loam, peat, and sand, with crocks, and constantly kept in a cool frame. It lived several years, but never flowered. Aceras anthropophora, R. Br. — should be kept in pots, in loam, peat, and coarse sand, with plenty of crocks. It should be placed in a cool shaded frame throughout the year, and sparingly watered when in a dormant state. Habenaria vi7-idis, R. Br. — bears cultivation well in pots placed in a shaded situation. As it grows naturally in light, damp, sandy soil, it should have loam, peat, and coarse sand mixed with plenty of crocks, and, the roots being small, several may be placed in the same pot. I have flowered it successively for several years. ON THE CULTIVATION OF BEITISH ORCHIDS. 31 H. hifolia, JBab.~— The smaller butterfly orchis grows chiefly on dry chalky banks, and is safest in pots in loam and peat, with plenty of drainers. It should be placed in a cool frame while dormant, and taken out when beginning to grow in spring. II. chlorantha, Bab. — This is a more robust plant tlian the last. It is to be found in clayey coppices, and should be potted in loam, sand, and a little peat, with drainage, and may be kept out of doors all the year. Ophrys apifera, Huds. — should be kept in pots ; and, as there are few libres to the tubers, several may be put into the same pot, using loam, peat, and sand. It should be kept in a frame during winter, and not put out of doors until the flower- stems have become somewhat advanced. Roots brought from Keigate Hill in March, 1843, were still alive this spring. O. aranifera, Huds. — I never had more than one root under cultivation, which was preserved for several years in a cold frame, potted in loam, peat, and sand, with plenty of drainers. It did not appear to be difticult to cultivate. O. aranifera, var. fucifera, Hook. — Several roots of this va- riety were received from Kent some years ago, and were potted in a mixture of loam, peat, and coarse sand, with plenty of crocks or drainers. The plants were kept in a cold frame during winter, and out of doors in summer, and were preserved three or four years. O. muscifera, Huds. — should be kept in pots planted in light sandy peat mixed with a small portion of loam, the pots being- well drained. As the fibrous roots are small, several plants may be placed in a pot. They should be kept in a cold shaded frame the whole year, and watered sparingly while dormant. Herminium Monorchis, H. Br. — is a small species, seldom more than four inches high, with small yellowish green flowers, which smell like honey. It should be potted in peat, loam, and sand, with plenty of drainers, and may be constantly kept out of doors ; the roots being very small, several may be placed in a pot. It increases itself tolerably by sending out underground rhizomes, at the extremities of which a fresh tuber is formed. It bears cultivation well. Goodyera repetis, R. Br. — is an extremely scarce species, only to be found in a few fir woods in the Highlands of Scot- land. It grows in dense creeping masses, and might be obtained in large patches by paring off' the soil on which it grows. The roots do not run deep into the soil, and it is not difticult to cul- tivate. I have grown small pieces till they covered the whole surface of the pots. It flowers sparingly. It appears to like very light sandy peat, with the pots half filled with drainers, and it should always be kept in a cold shaded frame. 32 ON THE CDLTIVATION OF BRITISH ORCHIDS. Spiranthes autumnalis, Rich, — This bears cultivation well. It is generally reputed not to appear in the same place for several years after flowering ; but I have always been able to find it within one or two inches of the place where it has flowered, sending out a small rhizome forming a bulb at the point : the old bulb dies after flowering. Several roots may be planted in a pot in loam and sand, using plenty of drainers. The pots may be kept out of doors all the year. S. gem>tiipara, Lindl. — I received one plant of this rare species from Ireland two years ago while in flower. It was planted in very light sandy peat with drainers. The plant came up well, but unfortunately perished from being over watered. Li&tera ovata, R. Br. — is a common plant in woods, &c. It thrives well under cultivation either in pots or in the border. For pot culture use sandy loam and rather large pots, which should be kejit out of doors the whole year. L. cordata, R. Br. — This small plant bears cultivation well in pots, using fine sandy peat and plenty of drainers. Being very small, a dozen or more roots may be put into one pot. It may be kept out of doors the whole year in a shaded place. Nettia Nidus-avis, Rich. — I never could preserve this species after the first season, although various ways were tried to ma- nage it. Epipactis latifolia, All. — Epipactises having fasciculated bundles of roots, require much care to get them up in a fit state for cultivating. This species may be grown in pots, in loam, sand, and peat. It may be kept constantly out of doors. B. j)urpurata, Sm. — is extremely diflftcult to get up, being generally amongst clay and flints, which are hard and solid, re- quiring a pick-axe to move them. It succeeds tolerably well potted in loam, sand, and peat, using crocks or drainers, and placing the plants in a shaded situation. E. palustris, Sm. — A creeping species, easily increased by underground runners. It may be planted in peat, in a shaded damp border, where it will grow and multiply speedily. For pot culture use light sandy peat and drainers. The plants may stand out of doors all the year. Cephalanthera grandijlora, Bab. — I grew this in pots, in peat, loam, and sand ; but it seldom or never came up the second year. C. ensifolia, Rich. — I treated this the same as the last, but had no better success. Liparis Loeselii, Rich. — I flowered this several years suc- cessively in pots filled with sandy peat. It was kept constantly in a shaded situation out of doors. Cijpripedium Calceolus, L. — This is perhaps best grown under AN EXPERIMENT IN PLANTING. 33 a hand-glass in a peat border, where in the course of a few years it becomes so strong as to produce six or eiglit flowers. It may also be cultivated in pots, which should be kept in a shaded place. The soil it appears to like best is sandy peat, with plenty of drainag-e. VII. — An Experiment hi Planting. By Peter Mackenzie, oi West Plean, Stirling. (Communicated August 10, 1847.) Much has been said in gardening periodicals respecting the shallow planting of fruit-trees ; and perhaps, after all, more may be said and done yet, for Ave seldom get at the best way of doing a thing all at once. We liave been often told that deep plant- ing is a bad thing, and is tlie cause of much evil to fruit and fruit- trees, and the cause of much disappointment to cultivators. All may not know that it is not for the welfare of trees and bushes to have their roots colder in the soil than the stem and branches in the atmosphere ; but the explanation is given in the " Theory of Horticulture." " The reason why it is necessary to plants in a growing state that the mean temperature of the earth should be higher than that of tlie air is sufficiently obvious. Warmth acts as a stimu- lus to tlie vital forces, and its operation is in proportion to its amount within certain limits. If, then, the branches and leaves of a plant are stimulated by warmth to a greater degree than the roots, they will consume the sap of the stem faster than the roots can renew it, and therefore nature takes care to provide against this by giving to tlie roots a medium permanently more stimu- lating, that is warmer, than to the branches and leaves." Some time ago I planted some fruit-trees and gooseberry- bushes in different positions, with the intention of exposing the roots of some of them as much as possible to the influence of all sorts of weather ; not all at once, but gradually, so that they might not be injured from the want of their earthy covering. A young gooseberry-bush was planted upon a small mound of earth, with a stake in the centre of the mound ; the stem of the plant was tied to the stake to prevent it from falling, for the slight covering of earth which the roots got was not sufficient to support the plant, and the bush had more the appearance of being punished for some transgression than one expected to live, for it was well secured to the stake, and had little attachment to the soil of this world ; but it is wonderful to what plants and animals may be trained — Fingit equura teuera docilem cervice Magister Ire viam quam monstrat eques. VOL, III. D 34 THE PRODUCTION OF BLOOM IN INGA PULCHERKIMA. An old writer says, " I have often wondered at that ill-natured position which lias been sometimes maintained, namely, that a man's knowledge is worth notliing if he communicates what he knows to any one besides. There is certainly no more sensible pleasure to a good-natured man than if he can by any means gratify or inform the mind of another." It might be added, that this virtue naturally carries its own reward along with it, since it is almost impossible it sliould be exercised without the im- provement of the person who practises it. As every ray of the rising sun that gilds the morning, helps to dispel the darkness from the world ; so even a successful mode of planting a gooseberry-bush may add to tlie flood of day that is breaking in upon the minds of tlie lovers of gardening. Although the roots of the plant were so slenderly covered from the heat of summer and the cold of winter, the plant grew well ; and in process of time the main roots grew strong, and are exposed to tlie weather as mucii as any other part of the plant, and the stake has become rotten and removed, and the small mound of earth taken away, and the stem and branches of the plant are supported upon a dome of roots that bids defiance to the strongest gales. I think it was in the month of May last that its strength was pretty Avell tried by a storm of wind, which continueck for some time, and did considerable damage to many things in the garden : there were few of the gooseberry and currant bushes that escaped injury less or more ; some with broken branches, others laid on their sides, and some of those tliat were planted on the same day and in the same sort of soil, but whose roots were deeper in the earth, and their heads about half the size of the one already no- ticed, yielded to the blast, although they were supported with stakes. Such a mode of planting and training the roots of some trees and bushes may be useful in soils that are cold by reason of moisture or situation ; or in exposed places they may resist the storms that often overturn plants whose roots are not strong enough, or spreading enough, to give security to the rest of the plant ; and, among other advantages, a heavier and a better crop of fruit may be expected. VIII. — On the Conditions of Groivth necessary to the Pro- duction of Bloom in Inrja pulcherrima. By William Wood, Fishergate Nurseries, York. (Communicated November 2, 1847.) This is one of the most brilliant flowered stove-shrubs yet in- troduced to our gardens, and on account of its moderate size is THE PRODUCTION OF BLOOM IN INGA PULCHEKKIMA. 35 well adapted for small and select collections. To bloom it well it requires to be restricted in growth ; it thrives in ordinary mix- tures of soil— M'ill endure opposite extremes of temperature, and its elegantly-winged leaves, and extremely rich pendent clusters of crimson tassel-like flowers, render its possession much to be desired. Indeed, than this, few plants possess stronger claims to attention. As one of a class of plants, therefore, whose natural habits of growth are unfavourable to a general formation of flower-buds, and as all attempts hitherto to obtain such by ordinary culture have proved unavailing, the cause of its infertility, as well as that of plants generally, affords a suitable subject for inquiry. The principal cause to which a failure in tiie production of flowers is to be assigned, is unmatured growth ; but as this defect is not solely the result of deficient exposure to light, air, heat, &c., tlie remaining conditions will be noticed hereafter. It may, however, be observed, that of those plants wherein the greatest ditficulty exists in obtaining bloom, the ultimate success has been in proportion to a judicious limitation of the annual growth, and the attention paid to a cessation from growth, which should be vax'ied to suit the character of the species — especially in deciduous plants. Inga pulcherrima is a ligneous or hard-wooded semi-deci- duous stove-shrub, producing comparatively small and slender lateral growths or side branches. A gross and luxuriant habit of growth is unfavourable to fertility ; but the plant in question is strongly marked by the opposite condition. The following treatment will result in obtaining a good display of bloom : — In common with other plants of similar nature, about equal parts friable sandy loam (from well-decayed turf) and heath- mould, witli tolerable free bottom-drainage, will be found most suitable. In the stove it may be exposed to from 60° to 75° of summer temperature. If potted liberally with regard to its amount of soil at each potting, the operation should not be repeated beyond once in two or three years ; and from its par- tially deciduous habit, a vigorous growth should be encouraged during the early summer months, supplying the plant with weak liquid manure, in the proportion of one gallon to four of pure water, twice each week, for a month, during its most vigorous period of growth. When the current year's shoots have attained from 8 to 14 inches in length, and their wood appears to have become firm, their progress should be checked by pinching off the extreme top bud of each, and in about a fortnight's time the shoots shoidd be permanently shortened by cutting back each shoot, two, three, or four joints, for tlie purpose of maturing the lower onesj and enabling the remaining growth to assimilate the d2 36 THE p-RODUCTION OF BLOOM IN INGA PULCHEEEIMA. secretions necessary for bloom. As the shoots generally become ripened, the circulation of sap should be sufficiently checked to prevent a premature excitement of the leaf-buds, by placing the plant in the driest and coolest part of the stove, well exposed to light and air. The ordinary watering should be gradually les- sened, and a partial cessation from growth maintained until the ensuing spring. Tlie foregoing treatment in the cultivation of Inga pulcherrima is based upon the following principles, which are also applicable to the growth of plants generally whose natural habits are un- favourable to a general formation of flower-buds. 1. All plants under artificial culture in pots, &c., according to their respective habits and conditions of growth, and the different amounts of soil in which they are grown, are only capable of maturing a certain amount of growth annually, and it is upon a correct estimate of the extent to which such conditions can proceed, in connexion with the period in which growth is attainable, that the amount of fertility depends. 2. All growth in plants (whatever may be its mean vigour) is deficient in maturity for the purpose or formation of bloom, if, for want of proper training, or due exposure to light, air, heat, or moisture, or the requisite period of repose after growth, or before bloom (as required), it fails to accumulate in its proper season the amount of sap essential to fertility ; and that manage- ment is imjDcrfect which fails to control the circulation of sap by a judicious training of the growth, so as to prevent its excessive accumulation in one branch, or its defective secretion in an- other. 3. The most general conditions of growtli in plants, consi- dered unfavourable to the formation of flower-buds, may be re- ferred either to an excess or to a deficiency of those vital secretions of nutritive matter necessary to fertility. Where such conditions are present, the remedial influences (other con- ditions being equal) are the follouing: — 1st. Where excess is manifested by too gross and luxuriant growth, exposure to a lower and drier atmosphere, strong light, &c. for a given period previous to the season of bloom, will be efficient. 2nd. Where deficiency is manifested by weak, attenuated growth, and abortive buds, a simple restriction of the growth, by shortening the growing points of each shoot, at the period of the plant's attain- ing its highest vigour, will enable the remaining growth to accumulate the vital secretions essential to fertility. 4. As the formation of flower-buds in plants depends upon a sufficient amount of nutritive matter being deposited and ma- tured in the growth of the current or previous year, and as the maturity of growth in plants depends upon its partial restraint, ON A FORM OF SCAB IN POTATOES. 37 and due exposure to light, air, heat, &c., it follows, that any infringement upon these necessary conditions or laws of nature will tend to render growth unproductive of bloom, by expending the vital forces in the production of abortive shoots. IX. — On a form of Scab in Potatoes. By the Rev. M. J. Berkeley, M.A., F.L.S. There are two very different diseases known commonly under the name of scab, of which one is far more g'eneral than the other, but, at the same time, less injurious to the intrinsic value of the tubers, though, in point of fact, reducing their market value in consequence of the rough pocky aspect which it pro- duces. The first, of which it is not now my intention to treat, was described and figured by Martins (DieKartoffel-Epidemie, p. 23, tab. 2, figs. 9-13; tab. 3, figs. 36-38), and is characterized by the presence of an olive-green or brownisli pulverulent Hy- phomycete (Tuburcinia Scabies, Berk., Journ. Hort. Soc. Lond., vol. i. p. 33, tab. 4, figs. 30, 31), which gives a very peculiar appearance to the pustules, and to which indeed it is not eon- fined, but occasionally forms a stratum a line or more in thick- ness beneath the greater portion of the cuticle. A few scattered tubers occur now and then affected by this disease, but it is very rarely so prevalent as to draw much attention. The potato-crops, how-ever, suffered greatly from its ravages in the Scilly Islands and in Cornwall during the present summer, where it appeared under a very destructive form. Mature specimens were for- warded to me, with the promise at some future period of a supply of tubers in every stage of the disease. I was, however, disappointed in my hope of being enabled to investigate its nature more closely, possibly because the malady, as Martins reports, is several weeks in going through its phases. Indeed, it should seem that, in Germany, it does not usually occur till after the tubers have been raised for pitting ; and as it first appears under the form of discoloured spots, which gradually spread and become confluent, and of which the cuticle is not at all ruptured for some weeks, it has been supposed by the German peasants to arise from injuries received by the tubers in the course of har- vesting. Tins notion seems, however, to be completely contra- dicted by the fact of its occurring to a considerable extent on the tubers in situ. The second disease which passes, though perfectly distinct, under the name of scab is extremely common in newly turned up soil, especially if it contain cinder-dust or lime rubbish, or 38 ON A FOKM or SCAB IN POTATOES. where these form a considerable paVt of the manure in old tilths, for it is by no means confined to new ground, but is to be found in a greater or less proportion in most crops, in some instances every individual tuber being attacked, in others the scabby tubers making the exception to the smooth and healthy appearance of the sample. It commences at a very early stage in the growth of the tubers, whether in those produced immediately from the sets or those wliich often make tlieir appearance with the first heavy rain after a long-contiimed drought, I have seen during the l^resent autumn potatoes already attacked wliich did not exceed a quarter of an inch in diameter, and it is on these young tubers only that the early stage of the disease can be studied. Its first appearance is that of a minute brown speck, paler on the edge, and staining the subjacent cells of the cuticle, which, as is well known, consists of a variable number of layers of muriform tissue, and which should seem rather to be considered as the outer jDortion of the bark of the underground stem than as of the nature of epidermis. It is thei-efore only in a 23opular sense that it is here termed cuticle. The discolouration does not pro- ceed beyond the cuticular cells, nor is the cuticle at all thickened, but is occasionally more or less corroded in the centre. Even in this early stage of growth, when the sur- face of the cuticle is still but little injured, and tlie disease confined to a ditaolouration of a few of the cells of which it is composed, on th-:^ removal of the outer coat little pale specks are visible on the smooth subjacent surface, indicating precisely the situation of the incipient pustules. In the coui'se of a few days the spots spread, become paler, and are abraded in the centre ; and if the cuticle is now torn off, it will be found that where the spots are situated it is protruded into the substance of tlie tuber, the subjacent cells being at the same time absorbed, so tliat the exposed surface of tlie tuber is covered with little pits of a paler colour than the rest, and more transparent, and, in red varieties, distinguished by the absence of colouring matter. If a section be made through the pits, tlie cells will be found to contain but little fecula, and their walls to change shortly to a reddish brown. The cells of the base of the pustule still form a portion of the cuticle, which I ';.s, however, been more or less incrassated as the outer layers of its tissue were corroded. The pustules now become confluent and deeply excavated, their inner surface being more or less scaly and corroded. As long as the cuticle is easily separable they separate with it, whether fresh or boiled, so tliat the tubers, when served at table, appear shining and smooth if the cuticle is nicely jieeled, the diseased spots being indicated by scars resembling those left by ON A FORM OF SCAB IN POTATOES. 39 the small-pox. The quality of the potato itself is little altered, except that it acquires sometimes a slightly earthy flavour, if indeed that is really attributable to the disease ; and, according to the virulence of the disease, tliere is a slight difference in the quantity of fecula contained in the tubers. In this stage of growth it is not uncommon to find some species of Poduridse revelling in the scurfy cavity of the pustules, and threads of a yellow-brown mycelium, wliicii is prol)ably that of Botrytis viilgaris or some nearly allied species, traversing it, but not penetrating far beneath the surface. These, however, are merely accidental and secondary phenomena in the malady. By the time tliat the cuticle of the tubers has become well fixed, the spots, which are still more rough and excavated, often present a very unsightly appearance, but in every case, however complicated, a tissue very much resembling that of the cuticle is presented under the microscope ; for, though the pustule has been excavated perhaps a line below the surface, and the ori- ginal cuticle is seen surrounding the pustule, while the continuity between it and the cavity of the pustule which existed for some time after the appearance of the disease is quite dissolved, the whole of the diseased surface exhibits a muriform arrangement of the cells, those of all the strata of which it is composed being for the most part coterminous ; the individual cells are, however, far larger and coarser. The manner in \\ Inch these cells ori- ginate is very obscure, whether from a modification of the more superficial cells beneath the cuticle or from a hypertrophy of those of the cuticle itself: I am inclined, however, to the latter view, though it is not without difiiculty, and the analogous case of cracked potatoes, which I was enabled to study, more partially indeed, at the same time, has made the matter at least doubtful. After the summer drought and the subsequent rains, a crop of very smooth-skinned potatoes was much cracked from the in- ability of the tubers to accommodate the sudden increase of moisture. I was surprised to find, on examination, that these exhibited phases very similar to those of the scabby crop ; the tissue beneath the cracks was transparent at first when cut, and nearly void of fecula, and became more rapidly rusty than the other parts of the tubers, and, what is of more importance, the disc of the fissures exhibited under the microscope the same muri- form tissue, though here also the connexion between that and the cuticle was dissolved. I had no opportunity of ascertaining the condition of the tissue when the fissures first took place, which would probably have shown at once of which of the two sets of cells, the cuticularor sub-cuticular, it was a modification. In this instance I observed something which may perhaps indi- cate the mode in which the muriform tissue is formed. It will 40 ON A FORM OF SCAB IN POTATOES. be seen in fig. 4 that between two contiguous radiating series of cells a little wedge of cells has been interposed, of which the broad end consists of double, the narrower of single cells. This process repeated would clearly produce a tissue like that in question. Fi2. 1. Fig. 1. Vertical section of a young pustule, showing that the structure of the pustule is the same as that of the skin of the tuber. Fig. 2- Vertical section of an old pustule, a. Skin of tuber; 6. Cells immediately be- neath the skin, containing colouring matter; c. Cells at the base of the pustule ; d Starch cells. Fig. 3. Vertical section of a cracked tuber through the centre of a fissure. Fig. 4. Portion from the tissue at base of a crack more highly magnified. In the case of cracking, the evil is evidently mechanical ; and as the phases, as far as they have been observed, are so ex- tremely like tliose of the disease we have been considering, I am inclined to think that tliat is in great measure mechanical also. The first decay of the tissue, which is confined to a mere speck, is probably caused by contact with some irritating particle in the soil, and when this is established, the corrosion of minute insects and the exposure of the tissue to external agents, accom- panied by a constant effort to repair the damage, may be suffi- cient to account for it, for the disease is absolutely confined to the surface, and never penetrates to such a depth as to cause any general disarrangement of the tissues. If such be a correct view of the case, which is 'submitted to further investigation, the remedy will consist in avoiding all ON PACKING SEEBS FOR A VOYAGE TO INDIA OK CHINA. 41 such substances in the cuuivation of potatoes as are observed to be accompanied by scab. Tliis will be best ascertained by the practical agriculturist, and would probably not be very difficult if care be taken not to confound the two very distinct diseases which pass under the common name of scab. King's Cliff, November 18, 1847. X. — Observations upon the best methods of Packing Seeds for a voyage to India or China. By Robert Fortune. (Received October 27, 1847.) When I was about to leave England for China in the spring of 1843, 1 was desired by the Council of the Horticultural Society to procure a quantity of seeds, and to have them put up in different Avays, in order to test the best methods of packing such things for a long sea voyage to a distant country. Messrs. Wrench and Sons, of London-Bridge, supplied a large portion of the seeds, the remainder were made up in the garden of the Horti- cultural Society. In order to make the experiments as complete and satisfactory as possible, the same kinds of seeds and from the same samples were packed in three different ways. One lot Avas put up in bottles and sealed ; a second was packed in paper and put into a box lined with tin ; and a third was merely put in paper, and thrown loosely into a canvas bag to be hung up in my cabin. AYhen I arrived at Hong-Kong, Messrs. Dent and Co. kindly placed their garden at my service for any experiments of this nature which it might be necessary to try. It was in the month of July, and the rays of the sun were too fierce, and the ground too dry, for the purposes of securing a crop ; but a cer- tain portion of the seeds was immediately unpacked and sown for experiment in a corner of the garden which was partially shaded by the house. On examining the seeds in the sealed bottles, I observed that many of them were moist and mouldy ; in some instances they appeared to have swelled to a certain extent, as if vegetation had been commencing ; in other bottles they were perfectly dry, and seemed in good condition. The results were as may be ex- pected ; those seeds which were taken out of the mouldy samples all failed to vegetate, while the others came up well enough. Although I tliink the system of sending out seeds in sealed bottles is a bad one and ought never to be adopted, yet they might be sent out in this way in good order, provided the air in the bottles was well dried, and the seeds also, before being packed. But it is a difficult matter to dry thoroughly certain kinds of seeds -which contain a large quantity of albumen. In 42 ON PACKING SEEDS FOR A VOYAGE TO INDIA OR CHINA. the passage to India, China, or Australia, the temperature is often changed ; at one period the seeds are broiling in a high temperature under the line, a few days afterwards they are in a cold damp atmosphere, when the vessel is running down her ''easting" far to the south of the Cape of Good Hope. In the case of India and China, the seeds again cross the line before they arrive at their destination. When in a high temperature, every particle of moisture is drawn out from the seeds into the bottles, which become little stoves or Ward's Cases for the time, and in which the first stage of germination commences. Other circumstances, however, are not favourable, and the vessel in the mean time sails onward in her course towards colder latitudes, vegetation is checked, a mouldiness ensues, and tlie vital principle of the seeds becomes extinct. This is what really takes p'ace when seeds are packed in sealed bottles not perfectly dry, and, as this system of packing has no advantages which I know of, it is much better never to adopt it. Tliose seeds which were taken out in boxes lined with tin were nearly all in good condition ; so were those whicii were packed loosely in a canvas bag and suspended in the cabin. I have already said that the season at IIong-Kong, when I arrived there, was too hot for English seeds. After sowing a few for tlie purpose of experiment, the remainder were taken to Chusan and the other northern ports which I visited at that time. Dr. Maxwell, of the Madras army, had a small garden on the island of Chusan, whicli he rented from the Chinese. Here a greit many of the seeds were sown, and the results as regards their vegetation were the same as I have already related, and con- firmed the experiments made under unfavourable circumstances at Hong-Kong. But the climate of Chusan being much more favourable to European seeds, tliey not only vegetated, but grew afterwards with sfieat luxuriance.* * The natives, who had never seen any peas but the common field kinds, ■were much surprised at the growth of our English ones, which in this fa- voured climate attained a mucli greater size than they do at home. As the stems grew in height, the Chinese, with their characteristic conceit, told us that their own kinds were much better than ours, for that ours would pro- duce nothing but stems and leaves. Rut when, in due course, the fine tall rows were covered with a sheet of white bloom, and when the large pods began to swell, the Chinese were fain to beg a portion of the produce to sow in their own gardens. These, with many other seeds, were given to them with much pleasure, and it is hoped are now cultivated to some extent — unless, indeed, they have been destroyed as belonging to the " barbarian," at the time the comfortable houses and hospitals were pulled down, which were left in good condition by the English when the island was restored in the spring of 1846. It is a curious fact that the moment the place was evacuated the Chinese began to pull down the houses erected at considerable expense by the English during their residence on the island. ON PACKING SEEDS FOE, A VOYAGE TO INDIA OR CHINA. 43 Each of these two modes of packing has its peculiar advan- tages. Seeds, of course, can be packed more securely in tin for a long voyage, but when this mode is adopted they should be carefully dried, as well as the paper in which they are put up, before the box is closed. The method of packing in canvas bags, which are hung in a cabin or other airy part of the vessel, is the best of all, because any moisture which may evaporate from the seeds or paper during the voyage can readily pass into the air. But it is often difficult to induce captains of ships or others to allow packages of this kind to be swinging about in cabins, and unless some one can be got to take charge of them who can be depended upon, I should prefer the mode of drying the seeds well and packing them in a box lined with tin. Another matter of equal importance as regards success is the age of the seeds. Old seeds in many instances are almost sure to fail. Even in this country, where seeds can be kept in the most favourable circumstances, many will not vegetate the second year. In sending them to distant countries, therefore, where they will have to pass through many ciianges of tempera- ture, none but those of the last gathering should be sent. The Ilonourable East India Company, with that enlightened libe- rality which does them so much credit, kept up a large establish- ment at Calcutta for the purpose of procuring and sending the natural productions of India to England. For many years scarcely any of the seeds thus sent vould vegetate when they reached this country. At last the reason of this want of success was solved. A young man from the Calcutta garden having been sent over to England for the purposes of improvement, was asked to explain the method of preparing these seeds for ex- portation. It came out that seeds were gathered year after year and stored in the same drawers ; that, in fact, the young seeds were always mixed with the old ones which remained from former gatherings. When parcels were ordered to be made up for Europe these drawers were opened and the seeds taken out of tliem. Of course the packages so made contained a great portion of seeds which had been gathered years before, and whose vitality was much weakened or altogether gone. Before seeds are packed for foreign countries, they should always be looked over, and those infested with insects carefully removed. These little animals make sad havoc amongst a packet of seeds during a long voyage. From what I have stated it will be observed that the length of the voyage, the dampness of sea-air, the variations of tempera- ture, and the attacks of insects, are the greatest difficulties we have to contend with in the exportations of seeds to distant coun- tries. These, however, may be in a great measure overcome by 44 ACCOUNT OF THE " BLACK PRINCE HAMBURGH " GRAPE. attending to the directions I have given for the preparation of the seeds. I may mention that by far the best way of sending small boxes of seeds to India or China is by the overland route, via Southampton. The expense of sending any box of small dimensions — say a foot, or a foot and a half, cubic measure- ment — by this conveyance will be less than its freight would be if sent by ship round the Cape ; it will reach its destination in half the time, and the variations of temperature will be less. The post-office can also be used with great advantage in sending out small packets of the choicer kinds of seeds, and there is Jio plan which is more likely to be successful than sending them in a letter. A letter weighing an ounce will only cost two shil- lings, and may be made to hold a great number of interesting seeds for which a friend in the East would gladly give two gold mohrs ; and if, in conclusion, I might give a word of advice to those who have friends in distant countries as to the kinds of flower-seeds which will prove most acceptable, I would say, send above all those common things which, from time immemorial, have been favourites in our woods and gardens. They will be prized much more than any thing which we consider new or rare. A friend of mine, who has a garden in one of the north- ern Chinese towns, and to whom I sometimes send plants and seeds, writes thus: — ^" Send me some Roses of various colours, but amongst them a plant or two of those frie?ids of my youth, the Cabbaore and Moss." XI. — Some Account of the " Black Prince Hamburgh " Grape. By John Williams, of Pitmaston, CM. U.S. (Communicated Oct. 13, 1847.) I HAVE desired my gardener to send you a bunch of a seedling vine, I raised from a berry of what is usually called the Black Hamburgh Grape, but I believe it really to be what Speechley describes as the Red Hamburgh, or Warner Grape, the berry of which is black when properly ripened. Tlie cross was obtained by impregnation with the pollen of the " Black Prince," which I consider, after more than forty years' experience, to be one of the best grapes we have — not of the perfumed kind. The only defect I find in the Black Prince is that the berries grow too much crowded, and require so much thinning. I therefore wedded it to the Hamburgh, with a view of obtaining a more loose open bunch, with the vinous acidity and richness of the Black Prince. This double object, I think, I have obtained. The seedling plants, for I raised several of the ACCOUNT OF THE " BLACK PKINCE HAMBUEGH " GEABE. 45 same cross, grew the first year in pots, with artificial heat, but were then turned out into the open ground without being trained to a wall. Here they remained, and the annual shoots cut down to one of two eyes, till I found the end of the summer shoots and the cultivated appearance of the leaves began to throw out tendrils with a few flowers. Cuttings were then taken from the flowering end of the shoots, and planted against a south wall. They came into bearing soon after this, and one or two of the most promising were two years ago planted in my vinery. But the wood produced, till this year, was small ; now it is become more vigorous and strong. It ripens earlier than the Ham- burgh, and colours with less heat and light. The plant from which I gathered the bunch you will receive was planted at the east end of a lean-to-roofed house, and only got a little morning sun, and that but for a short period, owing to the shade of a large willow tree. It had no top sun-light from the roof glass, being under the shade of a rafter vine. You can therefore not judge what the flavour will be under these disadvantages. I expect the bunch and berry will be double its present size when trained under the roof glass, and the wood becomes strong. We have had the coldest and most cloudy season I ever remember for the vines on the open walls. Still I think my new seedling varieties will ripen, if we have no severe frosts before the end of the month. I have named the new variety the " Black Prince Hamburgh." Pitmaston, near Worcester^ Oct. 13, 1847. Note by Mr. Tliompson. — The grape in question is a seedling, raised between the Black Hamburgh, which was the female parent, and the Black Prince. The bunch weighed 1 lb. 3 oz. It was loosely formed, with long shoulders ; and long, rather slender, pedicels. The berries are oval, being aboixt nine-tenths of an inch in diameter from the insertion of the stalk to the opposite end ; and eight-tenths in the transverse direction. The colour is a blue-black ; in this respect resembling the Black Prince more than its female parent. The juice is more purple than that of the Hamburgh, and is sugary and rich. Seeds, two or three in each berry. The variety deserves to be propagated. Oct. 21, 1847. 46 EXPEKIMENTS \VITEI EEFEEENCE TO THE TOTATO DISEASE. XII. — Account of Experiments made in the Garden of the Horticidtural Society, in 1847, laith reference to the Potato Disease. By Robert Thompson. (Nov. 15, 1847.) Various remedies having been suggested for the mysterious disease which has so extensively affected the potato crop, it was resolved that a number of experiments should be made, in order to try the efficacy of these proposed remedies, in tlie Garden of the Society. A piece of ground was accordingly appropriated of as uniform quality as possible. It formed a parallelogram, 32 feet wide, open to sun and air, and was not manured. In the experiments of which the results are given in Table I., the sets, cut tubers, were uniformly planted in rows across the above-mentioned compartment, the rows being 2 feet 4 inches apart, and running in the direction of north and south. The sets were planted 7 inches deep, and 8 inches from plant to plant in the rows. The variety of potato employed was the Jersey Blue, excepting for rows 11 and 12, in which young tubers of the Ash-leaved Kidney were planted ; and the two half rows Nos. 37 and 38 were planted with the Cornish Kidney, the sets of the Jersey Blues having been exhausted. The following are the particulars of the respective experiments : — 1. Lime and Charcoal. — The results are given in Table I., Nos. 1, 2, 3. The quantities for the 3 rows were 1 bushel of lime, and J^ bushel of powdered charcoal, mixed and scattered along the drills previously to planting the sets. This mixture was at the rate of 194 bushels of lime and between 9 and 10 bushels of charcoal per acre. The average sound produce of these three rows exceeded that of the adjoining three, to which nothing was applied, by 3 tons 13 cwt. 55 lbs, per acre. This surplus, it will be observed by referring to the table of results, is entirely owing to the enormous produce of the first of the three rows to which the mixture of lime and charcoal w^as applied, for the produce of the other two is below the average. In these the produce of sound tubers is respectively at the rate of 12 tons 18 cwt. 91 lbs. and 11 tons 7 cwt. 63 lbs. per acre; whilst that of row No. 1 is 20 tons 4 cwt. 110 lbs. This dif- ference of produce cannot be ascribed to the mixture applied, for of this each row had an equal share. It can only be accounted for by the circumstance of the row No. 1 being at the outside, running parallel with a gravel walk, in consequence of which the foliage had more light and air, with full exposure to the afternoon sun. It is further worthy of remark, that whilst this EXPEEIMEXT3 -WITH KEFERENCE TO THK POTATO DISE.iSE. 47 Table I. — Results of Experiments with Jersey Blue Potatoes planted in rows 32 ft. long, 2 ft. 4 in. apart, 7 in. deep, 8 in. from plant to plant, cut sets being employed. DIVISION I. No. of Tuber Sound No. of Weigh Weight Estimated Rate of Rate Tubers of of Produce per \cre. per SUBSTANCES EMPLOYED. Dis- I eased. Tubers Sound Tubers Dis- eased. Cent. Dis- eased. Sound. Diseased. Tns.cwt. lbs. lbs. oz. lbs. oz. Tns. cwt.lbs 1 Lime and charcoal 202 27 77 12 12 1 20 4 110 3 2 92 13-24 2 Do. do. ... 172 35 49 11 12 15 12 18 91 3 7 43 20 66 3 Do. do. ... 147 29 43 11 9 12 11 7 63 2 10 87 18-24 Average of the above three rows 173 30 57 05 11 91 14 17 13 3 36 17-38 4 Nothing ..... 172 41 44 12 11 13 11 13 10 3 1 59 20-88 5 Do 143 53 38 14 16 3 10 2 45 4 4 35 29-40 6 Do 156 34 45 3 12 11 11 15 43 3 6 10 21-92 Average of the above three rows 157 42 42 15 13 9 11 3 70l 3 10 72 24 06 7 Salt, lime, and charcoal 150 57 36 15 16 11 9 12 35| 4 6 103 31-05 8 Do. do. ... 174 48 38 10 15 9 10 1 21 4 1 3 22-81 9 Do. do. ... 111 37 45 7 3 11 14 45 1 17 38 13-77 Average of the above tliree rows 145 47 40 3 13 2i 10 9 33 3 8 48 22-54 10 Nothing ..... 202 54 67 6 20 2 17 10 105 5 4 92 23-00 U 12 ( Ash-leaved kidney, young tubers") ( grown in 1837 planted . J 113 10 6 4 1 8 16 40 7 90 24-00 13 Nothing 193 19 73 4 6 13 19 1 61 1 15 54 8-50 14 Watered with weak chloride of lime 180 32 37 3 7 11 9 13 78 2 4 17-52 15 Do. do. ... 143 37 34 8 2 8 17 11 2 2 35 19-28 16 Nothing ..... 109 47 27 13 7 71 3 7 80 32-50 17 Salt, potash, and fat . 187 24 50 8 7 13 3 5 1 16 51 12-17 18 Sulphuric acid, diluted (half row) . 77 4 15 15 14 8 6 4 9 12 5-19 19 Powdered charcoal (half row) 80 5 19 6 1 10 10 1 92 16 102 7-73 20 Salt ...... 195 8 i2 1 11 10 18 86 9 12 3-86 21 Coal-tar sprinkled over the sets 127 10 26 1 6 15 48 5 23 3-70 22 Nothing 144 14 40 5 2 14 10 9 no 14 108 6 65 23 Chalk, salt, and charcoal , 150 7 34 13 1 10 9 1 37 8 51 4-45 24 Do. do. ... 170 8 31 4 2 5 8 2 86 12 4 6-89 Average of the above two rows 160 7i 33 Oi 1 15i 8 12 6 10 27 5-67 25 Sulphate of soda and nitrate of soda 170 23 34 4 5 14 8 18 44 1 10 67 14-64 26 Salt successivelv applied 160 16 .32 11 2 4 8 10 29 11 79 6-44 27 Do. do. " ... 184 12 37 3 9 12 81 15 70 7-50 Average of the above two rows 172 14 34 13 2 10 9 1 55 13 74 6-97 28 Sulphur ..... 190 11 36 2 5 9 7 58 12 4 6 03 20 Salt and sulphate of magnesia 165 16 33 8 3 7i 8 14 55 18 7 9-38 30 Do. do. ... 188 16 36 15 2 15 9 12 35 15 33 7-36 Average of the above two rows 176 16 35 3i 3 3i 9 3 45 16 76 8-37 31 Moberly's sulphate of magnesia 166 26 34 4-12 8 17 11 1 4 82 12-26 32 148 14 33 11 2 13 8 15 53 14 72 7-70 33 Sets sprinkled with quick-lime 148 25 35 2 7 5 9 2 107 18 9 17-27 34 163 28 34 9 6 11 9 3 15 93 16-21 35 Oil-cake (half row) 77 8 24 8 2 8 12 15 25 6 5 9-23 36 Nuthing (half row) 80 10 23 8 3 1 12 4 91 11 100 11-52 37 Powdered charcoal (half row) 137 18 20 4 2 14 10 10 107 9 106 12-43 38^ Nothing (half row) 114 16 15 15 2 12 8 5 108 1 1 8 70 14-71 DIVIS 166 ION 11 39 Sets dipped in boiling-water 23 56 !.■) 6 111 14 16 55! 1 14 93 7-39 40 Sets dipped in lime and dung-water 120 9 31 4 3 8 1 53 1 1 90 11-90 41 Do. do. . . 160 26 44 9 7 14 11 12 13 2 1 1 15-02 42 Do. do. ... 190 30 57 14 6 2 15 1 5l| 1 13 56 8 94 43 Planted alternately with beans 120 21 48 8 5 10 16 18 1 8 145 11-90 44 Crushed oil-seed (half row) . 82 13 26 2 3 1 3 12 16' 1 11 100 10-51 45 Nothing (half row) 91 11 29 12 1 13 5 9 102 18 98 5-74 46 Powdered oil cake (half row) 86 3 22 8 13 i 11 16 110 8 52 3-48 47 Nothing (half row) 109 7 30 6 2 12 ' 4 16 48 1 8 70 8-30 48 Shaded by Indian corn 140 32 43 3 7 2 1 5 68; 1 17 11 14 12 Average of all the rows to which i Nothing was applied . , J 168 34 48 3 ! l°^-ft 2 12 55 2 16 48 18*11 48 EXPEBIMENTS "WITH EEFEEENCE TO THE POTATO DISEASE. outside row pi'oduced at the rate of 20 tons per acre of sound tubers, the proportion diseased was nearly II per cent, less than in the rows acljoining, to which nothing was applied. In the rows Nos. 2 and 3 the per centage of diseased tubers was above the average. The rows 4, 5, 6 had nothing applied. Their produce was diseased to the extent of 24 per cent. ; still, the quantity of sound tubers amounted to 11 tons 3 cwt. 70 lbs., which is a fair crop. Salt, Lime, and Charcoal. — The results are given, Nos. 7, 8, 9, Table I. The quantities employed were, salt 3 lbs., lime I bushel, and charcoal, powdered, -^-^ bushel to 3 rows, or 5 cwt. 23 lbs. salt per acre, the quantities of lime and charcoal being the same as were employed for the rows 1, 2, 3, and applied in the same way ; but tlie salt was scattered over the ground previously to cutting out the drills for tlie sets, in order that it miglit be mixed with the soil ; in fact, this experiment dif- fered only from the first as regards the salt ; and it appears by the results Nos. 7, 8, 9, and their average, that the salt had not proved a beneficial addition. In the beginning of July it was observed that in these three rows the stems and foliage were of a paler green than in those adjoining. The average produce of sound tubers was at the rate of 10 tons 9 cwt. 33 lbs., being less by 2 tons 3 cwt. 22 lbs. than the average of sound produce in the rows to which nothing was applied. The portion diseased was 4 per cent, above the average, and 5 per cent, in excess of that where oidy lime and charcoal were employed. To row 10 nothing was applied. The total produce was at the rate of 22 tons 15 cwt. 85 lbs. per acre, of which 17 tons 10 cwt. 105 lbs. was the proportion sound, nearly one-third above the average. Young tubers of the Ash-leaved Kidney were planted in rows II and 12. Hot weather and the excitability induced by the disease occasioned premature vegetation in many of the tubers produced by plants of early potatoes grown in the kitchen garden in the summer of 1846. Instead of remaining dormant till the following spring, they pushed stems above ground the same autumn. Some of these young plants were taken up before frost and planted in a frame, wliere they formed tubers early in 1847 ; but these were of an imperfect character, evincing a strong disposition to send out runners, as is the case with some wild potatoes. Disease likewise appeared amongst them at an early stage of their growth. They were then taken up, and the sound- est exposed to light till the time of planting in the open ground. The two rows 11 and 12 were planted with these tubers, a gene- ration younger than those usually planted. Many of them failed EXPERIMENTS WITH REFERENCE TO THE POTATO DISEASE. 49 to vegetate. The produce of sound tubers was small, only 15 cwt. 70 lbs. per acre ; and of the total produce 24 per cent, was diseased. Row 13, Nothing. The produce was still greater than that of row 10. The amount of sound produce was greater than that of any row in the compartment, with the exception of No. 1, the outside row next the gravel walk. Nos. 10 and 13 were not outside rows; but the plants of the Ash-leaved Kidney in the two intervening rows were thin, dwarf, and decayed early, leaving an open space, which doubtless proved beneficial to their naturally strong- growing neighbours, the Jersey Blues, in rows 10 and 13. The former of these rows, situated on the west side of the space, was consequently exposed to the morning sun, and of its large produce 23 per cent, was diseased. No. 13 was equally exposed to the afternoon sun, and only 8J per cent, was diseased, leaving the unusually large quantity, estimated per acre of 19 tons, sound. Chloride of Lime. — Table I. 14, 15. In this experiment the sets, placed in the drills 7 inches deep, were covered to the depth of 4 inches, and the soil over them was then watered with a weak solution of chloride of lime. The quantity was 2 oz. chloride in 8 gallons of water, to a row, being at the rate of 72 lbs. of chloride of lime to an acre. The produce was below the average ; and the portion disea.sed averaged above 18 per cent., or about as much as that of the rows to which nothing was applied. Row 16, Nothing. — This proved a bad row as regards both quantity and quality of produce. The sound portion was at the rate of more than 5 tons per acre below the average of tliat of all the rows to which nothing was given ; and tlie quantity dis- eased amounted to 32i per cent. This row «as next an experi- ment made by planting sets in hills, and then layering tlie stems, in consequence of which the tops extended in a horizontal di- rection and approached those of the row in question, altliough the sets in the hills were more than the usual distance from those in the row. The shading thus occasioned to the latter may have deteriorated its produce. Salt, Potash, Fat, and Water, mixed so as to form a thin, gelatinous, soapy mass, was applied to sets planted in hills, as will be hereafter detailed. One row, No. 17, was however planted in drills like those from which the results are given in Table I., and half a pint of the above compound was poured over each set when placed in the drill. The sound produce was somewhat above the average, and the portion diseased was 6 per cent, less than in the roMs which had nothing. Sulphuric Acid. — Table I. 18. Haifa row was watered over VOL. III. E 50 EXPEEIMENTS WITH REFERENCE TO THE POTATO DISEASE. the tops June 18th with i pint of sulphuric acid dihited with 25 pints of water. The produce was below the average, but the diseased portion amounted to little more than 5 per cent. Charcoal, powdered. — Table I. 19. As soon as the plants were all fairly above ground, powdered charcoal to the amount of 2 lbs. 4 oz., was applied to half a row, being at the rate of 1 ton 8 cwt. 72 lbs. to an acre. The soil was removed from the stems to the depth of 2 inches, and as far as 6 inches from each side of the plants. To this extent thecliarcoal was equally scattered, a portion being closely in contact with the stems ; it was then covered with the soil. The produce was below the average, but the portion diseased was little more than 7 per cent., nearly 10 per cent, less than that of the average of rows to which nothing was given. It must, however, be observed that some of tliose rows to which nothing was applied (see Table I. 22, 45, and 47) were even less diseased than in this to which the above quantity of charcoal was given. Salt. — Table I. 20. Common salt, 2h lbs. to the row, being at the rate of 13 cwt. per acre, was mixed with the soil pre- viously to ^Jlanting. In the experiment with salt, lime, and charcoal, it was remarked that the stems and leaves were of a paler green than those in the adjoining rows where salt had not been applied. The same observation has to be made as regards the colour of the stems and leaves in this experiment ; and the plants also exhibited a somewhat dwarfer habit of growth. The amount of sound produce was at the rate of 1 ton 13 cwt. 8] lbs. per acre below the average of those rows to which notliing was applied ; but the quantity diseased was very small, being scarcely 4 percent., and this is less than in any of the returns in Table I., with the exception of the following: — Coal-tar sprinkled over the sets. — Table I. 21. In this ex- periment, the sets when placed in the drills were sprinkled with coal-tar by means of twigs, which were dipped in it and shaken over the sets. Of course some would fall on the soil in the drill, as well as on the potato sets. The quantity em- ployed was 1 quart of coal-tar to a row, being at the rate of 146 gallons per acre. The stems were somewhat dwarfer than the generality of those in the compartment. The sound pro- duce was 5 tons 17 cwt. 7 lbs. less than that of the average of rows which had nothing. Whether entirely owing to the coal- tar or not, it deserves to be remarked that in this row tiiere was less diseased produce than in any other of which the results are given in Table I., the proportion being only 3/^ per cent. Nothing. — Table I. 22. In this row the diseased portion per cent, was little more than one-third of the average quantity in rows which liad nothing. EXPERIMENTS WITH REFERENCE TO THE POTATO DISEASE. 51 Chalk, Salt, and Charcoal. — Table I. 23, 24, For these two rows \ busliel of chalk was powdei'ed, then thoroughly mixed with 1 lb. of common salt, being at the rate of 146 bushels of clialk and 2 cwt. of salt per acre. The salt and charcoal were mixed with the soil previously to cutting out the drills. Powdered charcoal to the depth of half an inch was put in the bottoms of the drills, and on it the sets were placed. The quantity of charcoal afforded was at the rate of 110 bushels per acre. The growing foliage was paler than usual, like that of some rows already noticed to which salt had been applied. The average amount of sound produce from these two rows was at the rate per acre of 1 ton 16 cwt. 104 lbs. less tlian that of No. 22, the row next to them, which had nothing; but the quantity diseased was nearly 12^ per cent, less than that of all the rows having nothing. On the other hand, No. 22, one of the rows which had nothing, was less diseased than one of those to which the chalk, salt, and charcoal were applied, and this was the adjoining row. Sulphate of Soda a7id Nitrate of Soda, — Table I. 25. These substances were given as a top dressing. The quantities were 3 oz. of each to a row, being at the rate of 110 lbs. of sulphate of soda and 110 lbs. of nitrate of soda to an acre. These were mixed and scattered on the surface of the ground when the plants were 6 inches high, care being taken to prevent the salts coming in immediate contact with the stems and foliage. The quantity of diseased produce was considerably greater than in the adjoining rows. It was 7f per cent, more tlian in tlie row next on the west, treated with chalk, salt, and charcoal, and fully 8 per cent, more than in the row next on the east side, to which salt was applied. Salt successively applied. — Table I. 26, 27. 1. Common salt was mixed with the soil before planting, i lb. to a row. 2. Common salt in solution with water was distributed on tlie ground by means of a watering-pot, after the potatoes had been planted a week, the quantity being ^ lb. to a row. 3. Another ^ lb. of common salt was given as a top dressing, scattered by hand on the surface of the ground, when the plants were 6 to 8 inches high, just before the earthing up. The quantity of salt applied as above was at the rate of 2 cwt. 76 lbs. per acre each dressing, the whole amounting to 7 cwt. 89 lbs. per acre. The quantity diseased averaged nearly 7 per cent., not half so much as in the row adjoining to which sulphate of soda and nitrate of soda were given. Sulphur. — Table I. 28. Flowers of sulphur, 4 oz. to a row, was scattered over the plants when they were 8 inches high. E 2 52 EXPERIMENTS WITH KEFERENCE TO THE POTATO DISEASE. This application was at the rate of 146 lbs. per acre. About 6 per cent, was diseased. Salt and Moberly's Sulphate of Magnesia. — Table I. 29, 30. For this experiment a compost was employed, consisting of ^ lb, of common salt, ^ lb. of Moberly's sulphate of magne- sia, mixed with '11 lbs. of earth, for 1 row. Moberly's sulphate of magnesia is a rough sulphate from the alum works near Whitby ; its crystals are large, and form rhombic prisms, whereas the common sulphate of magnesia crystallizes in small quadran- gular prisms. This rough sulphate i.s found to contain a little free sulphuric acid. Tlie above compost was put in the drills as manure, and then watered with 3 gallons of manure-water, dis- tributed by means of a watering-pot. As soon as the manure- water had soaked in, the potato-sets were planted on the compost. The rates per acre of the application of the respective ingredients were, common salt 2 cwt. 68 lbs., Moberly's sulphate of mag- nesia 2 cwt. 68 lbs., earth 2 tons 17 cwt. 29 lbs., manure-water 1650 gallons. The amount of sound produce was nearly 2 cwt. per acre greater than where salt alone was successively applied to rows Nos. 26, 27 ; but the proportion di.seased was nearly 1^ per cent, more than in those rows. Moherhfs Sulphate of Magnesia. — Table I. 31. The quan- tity was ^ lb. mixed with the soil when the potato-sets wore planted, being at the rate of 2 cwt. 68 lbs. per acre. The pro- duce, estimated per acre, was 6 cwt. 34 lbs. less than in the preceding experiment. This may have been owing to the ab- sence of the eartli and manure-water. It was observed that. where salt and sulphate of magnesia were applied, the proportion diseased was nearly 1 \ per cent, greater than wiiere salt had been successively applied. In all the rows to which salt alone was given, the diseased portion averaged scarcely 6 per cent. In this row, to which Moberly's sulphate of magnesia only was applied, the proportion diseased was 12i per cent., or more than double that of the rows which had common salt. Sets dipped in Lime. — Table I. 32. The sets were dipped in hot slaked lime, and were then planted with all the lime that adhered to them. The proportion diseased was 7/5- per cent., — not half the quantity diseased in the next row, where the sets were merely sprinkled with lime. Sets sprinkled with Lime. — Table I. 33. The sets being placed in the drill, powdered unslaked lime was dusted over them. The quantity was 2 lbs. to the row, being at the rate of 10 cwt. 46 lbs. per acre. The very large proportion of 17 '27 per cent, was diseased. More lime was used than in the pre- ceding experiment. When the sets in both rows were about to be covered up, there was quite as much lime visible upon the EXPEKIMENTS WITH REFERENCE TO THE POTATO DISEASE. 53 sets in the one row as upon those of the other ; but there was this difference : the sets being planted with the eyes uppermost, cut sides were, of course, undermost, and these would not be reached by the lime when sprinkled over the sets ; but in the case of dipping the sets, the cut surfaces, on the contrary, would take on a large coating of lime, owing to their moisture. Soot. — Table I. 34. The potato-sets being placed, soot was scattered over them, and along the bottom of the drill, in quan- tity about 3 quarts to a row. Estimated per acre, this amounts to 54i bushels. The produce was diseased to the amount of 16J per cent., nearly 5 per cent, more tlian that of the adjoining row, which had nothing. Poivdered Oil-cake. — Table I. 35. This was scattered in the drill as manure, at the rate of 1 lb. 9 oz. to half a row, the estimated quantity per acre being 16 cwt. 30 lbs. The sound produce was at the rate of 10 cwt. 46 lbs. per acre more than that of the other half of the row to which nothing was given ; and where the oil-cake was employed, the proportion diseased was 2 • 29 per cent, less than in the part of the row where it was not employed. Poicdered Charcoal. — Table I. 57. The quantity of 2 lbs. 4 oz. to half a row was put in the drills about the sets, being at the rate of 2 tons'3 cwt. 48 lbs. per acre. This half row, as regards the quantity and quality of its produce, can only be compared with the other half of the same row to which nothing was applied, because a difierent variety of potato was employed for sets, — the Cornish Kidney, instead of the Jersey Blues, these being ex- hausted. The sound produce was about 2\ tons more per acre than in tlie half of the row to which powdered charcoal was not applied, and the diseased proportion was 2J per cent. less. The remaining results in Table I. were derived from sets of the Jersey Blue Potatoes planted in another division of the compartment. The soil was considered of similar quality to that in which the preceding experiments were conducted. Sets dipped in boiling Water. — Table I. 39. The sets, just before planting, were dipped hastily in boiling water. The sound produce was above the average, and the proportion diseased was below the average, amounting to little more than 7 per cent. Sets dipped in a mixture of Lime and Dung-water. — Table I. 40, 41, 42. Some lime was slaked and allowed to cool. Dung-water was added to form a mixture of the con- sistence of thick cream ; into this mixture the sets were dipped, and, wlien dry, they were planted. It will be seen, by inspecting the Table, tliat the produce of the respective rows varied much as regards the quantity sound and the proportion diseased ; the latter from nearly 9 to 15 percent. Row 42 gave the greatest amount of sound produce with the least proportion diseased. 54 EXPEFvIMENTS WITH llEFERENCE TO THE POTATO DISEASE. It is necessaiy to observe that this row had not a row of po- tatoes next to it on one side, but a row of Mazagan beans. Beans planted with the Potatoes. — Table I. 43. At the dis- tance of 2 feet 4 inches from the last row in the preceding experiment, a row of Mazagan beans was planted; 2 feet 4 inches from this a row of potato-sets and Mazagan beans alter- nately ; and again, at the distance above-mentioned, another row of Mazagan beans only. In the row, planted alternately with potatoes and beans, the potato-sets were placed 16 inches apart instead of 8 inches, as in the previously detailed experiments ; and between every two sets a Mazagan bean was sown. The proportion of produce diseased was nearly 12 per cent. Planting with beans, therefore, appears no effectual remedy against the potato disease ; but the result of the experiment deserves notice in another point of view. Although planted at double the usual distance, only 24 plants of potatoes instead of 48 being in tlie row, the amount of sound produce was at the rate of 10 tons 16 cwt. 18 lbs. per acre. From sets planted at half the distance in the row without beans, 26 results out of 47 will be found in the Table, with less amount of sound produce than was afforded by the potato plants in this row, where they alternated with beans. Such being the case, the experiment of growing beans with potatoes certainly deserves extensive trial. The bean plants grew very well till attacked by insects, as was the case with this crop generally in the past summer, and to an extent that rendered it impossible to make any just estimate of their produce. Crushed Oil-seed, the fresh seeds of " Gold of Pleasure," (^Camelina sativd). — Table I. 44. This was scattered in the drill as manure previously to planting the sets, the quantity being the same as that of the powdered oil-cake already noticed, namely, 1 lb. 9 oz. to half a row ; estimated quantity per acre, 10 cwt. 46 lbs. The result was not favourable, for the sound produce was less than that from the other half of the same row wjiich had nothing, whilst the per-centage diseased was nearly double. Poivdered Oil-cake, from seeds of " Gold of Pleasure." — Table I. 46. This was applied in an equal quantity, and in the same manner as tlie crushed oil-seed in the preceding experi- ment. The sound produce was at the rate of 2 tons 19 cwt. 50 lbs. per acre below that from the other half of the same row to wliich nothing was applied ; but the proportion diseased was the least that is indicated amongst all the results in Table I., being scarcely 3^ per cent. Potato Plants shaded hy Indian Corn. — Table I. 48. The Indian corn could not be planted in the compartment in which the preceding experiments were made, because its sliade would have more or less affected adjacent rows not intended to be in- fluenced by it. A row of potatoes was therefore planted in the EXPERIMENTS WITH REFERENCE TO THE POTATO DISEASE. 55 Kitchen Garden 32 feet in length, and a row of Indian corn was planted on each side of it at 2 feet distance. Tlie result must be considered unfivourable, inasmuch as it appears that upwards of 14 per cent, of the produce was diseased. Experimenls ivith Jersey Blue Potatoes, -planted in lulls, ivith a composition of Potash, Fat, and common Salt, with Water. For these experiments, the results of which are given in Tables II. III. and IV., a preparation was made of tlie above- mentioned substances, in the proportion of 20 lbs. of potash (the potash of commerce), 22 lbs. of common fat, 7 lbs. of common salt, and about 36 gallons of water. The potash was dissolved in rather more water than was sufficient to hold it in solution ; the fat was then added, and the mixture frequently stirred till all the fat was acted upon by the potash. The rest of the water, holding in solution the common salt, was then added, and the compound frequently stirred until it thickened into a gelatinous mass. Table II.— Results of Experiments with Jersey Blue Potatoes, planted whole, in hills, each hill occupying one square yard. Com- position of potash, fat, common salt and water applied to the Sets ; Plants not earthed up. Number of Tubers Number of Tubers Weight of Tubers Weight of Tubers Estimated Rate of Produce per Acre. Rate per Cent. Sound. Diseased. Sound. Diseased. Sound. Diseased. Diseased. lbs. oz. lbs. oz. Tons. cwts. lbs. Tons. cwts. lbs. 1 33 2 4 13 4 10 7 108 10 90 4-93 2 SO 7 4 1 1 7 8 15 62 3 2 13 26-13 3 18 3 2 8 9 a 8 4 1 4 34 18-37 4 20 4 3 14 lu 8 7 51 1 7 1 13-88 5 17 6 3 14 1 12 8 7 51 3 15 70 31-11 6 17 3 5 1 10 16 8 2 3 24 16-66 26 3 4 1 8 12 96 2 3 24 20-00 8 23 4 5 5 1 1 11 9 64 2 5 102 16-66 9 37 6 3 8 1 2 7 11 28 2 8 69 24-33 10 29 1 8 14 2 19 3 59 5 45 1-38 11 45 2 3 15 8 8 10 17 1 1 68 11-26 12 11 12 2 '2 14 5 18 94 1 17 91 28-00 13 24 1 3 6 2 7 5 95 5 45 3-5/ 14 )4 5 3 8 2 7 11 28 4 6 48 12-50 15 70 2 4 8 8 9 14 52 1 1 68 10-00 16 18 5 4 4 14 9 3 74 1 17 91 17-07 17 20 4 3 14 10 8 7 51 1 7 1 13-88 18 18 10 1 15 2 3 4 3 81 4 14 59 53-03 19 18 7 3 11 1 7 7 19 39 3 2 13 28-05 20 21 1 7 8 2 16 4 12 5 45 1-63 21 12 7 3 7 2 7 8 61 4 6 48 3-50 22 25 6 2 14 2 1 6 4 27 4 9 14 41-77 23 7 6 1 12 1 15 3 15 70 4 3 81 52-57 24 28 3 2 8 2 5 8 4 5 45 4-76 25 14 9 2 13 1 10 6 1 60 3 10 25 36-62 26 16 8 1 8 1 9 3 4 92 3 7 58 51-02 27 13 7 1 15 1 15 4 3 81 4 3 81 50-00 28 17 1 2 2 2 4 11 93 5 45 5-55 ' 29 18 7 2 15 14 6 6 105 1 17 91 22-43 30 27 5 6 3 12 19 32 8 11 30-30 Averag e . 22-8 4-9 3 12 1 8 2 86 2 4 12 21-32 56 EXPEKIMENTS WITH REFERENCE TO THE POTATO DISEASE. In the meantime, the ground allotted was traced into square yards. At equal distances from the centre of each of these square yards of ground 2 whole potatoes were placed on the surface, 8 inches apart. Alleys a foot wide were then marked off in the direction of the lines by which the square yards were traced, and j pint of the soapy gelatinous compound was poured on the sets in each square. They were covei'ed with 3f inches of soil; by taking it 3 inches deep from the alleys. In this manner 90 hills were planted, each 2 feet square ; but with the alleys the whole occupied 90 square yards. The results obtained from liills 1 to 30 inclusive are given in Table II. In these hills tlie plants were not earthed up. With the exception of weeding, nothing was done to them from the time the tubers were planted and covered with between 3 and 4 inches of soil till the produce was taken up. In all tliese hills the produce was more or less diseased, in proportions vary- ing from little more than 1 per cent, to 53 per cent. The average was about 21^ per cent. The greatest amount of sound produce, estimated per acre, was 19 tons 3 cwt. 59 lbs., the least 3 tons 4 cwt. 92 lbs. Table III. — Results of Experiments with Jersey Blue Potatoes, planted whole, in hills, each hill occupying one square yard. Com- position of potash, fat, common salt and water applied to the Sets ; Plants once earthed up. Number of Number of Weight of Weight Estimt I ted Bate of Produce per Acre. Rate Tubers Tubers Tubers Tubers " per Cent. Sound. Diseased. Sound. Diseased. Sound D seased. Diseased. lbs. oz. lbs. oz. Tons. CKts lbs. Tons. c«ts. lbs. 31 34 1 6 9 2 14 3 66 5 45 1-86 32 43 4 3 4 6 7 50 16 23 10-34 33 33 1 5 4 2 11 6 98 3 45 2*32 34 40 5 3 8 6 9 72 1 1 68 14-23 35 38 4 4 9 3 74 .. 36 18 4 4 2 0" 5 8 18 29 13 56 7-04 37 25 1 4 12 2 10 5 30 5 45 2-56 38 28 5 12 12 8 54 . . 39 14 4 8 12 96 40 21 '2 3 0" li 6 9 72 ■4 5 3-63 41 14 , . 2 12 5 18 94 ,, , , 42 20 3 15 , . 8 10 17 43 19 , , 4 11 ., 10 2 63 44 26 2 4 3 6 9 107 ie 23 8-21 45 23 •• 5 11 12 5 87 •• Averag e . 26 4 I'l 4 5 2 9 7 91 5 94 3-20 Jersey Blue Potatoes, planted in hills and earthed up tvhen 8 inches high ; the application of the potash, fat, salt, and water composition being the same as in the preceding experiment. The results from these hills, 31 to 45, are given in Table III. There it will be observed that the plants in 7 out of the 15 hills had no diseased tubers, and that the average proportion diseased was EXPERIMENTS WITH REFERENCE TO THE POTATO DISEASE. 57 only Si per cent., whereas in the preceding experiment, differ- ing only from the one under consideration in the plants not being earthed up, the proportion diseased was upwards of 21 per cent. On the average, therefore, it would appear that the earth- ing up had diminished the amount of diseased produce fully 18 per cent., wliilst the amount of sound produce was increased at the rate of 1 ton 5 cwt. 5 lbs. per acre. Table IV. — Results of Experiments with Jersey Blue Potatoes, planted whole, in hills, each hill occupying one square yard. Com- position of potash, fat, common salt and water applied to the Sets ; Plants lajered and earthed-up repeatedlij. Number Number Weight Weight Estimated Rate of Produce of of of of per Acre. Rate Tubers Tubers Tubers Tubers per Cent. Diseased. Sound. Diseased. Sound. Diseased. Sound. Diseased. lbs. oz. lbs. oz. Tons. cwts. lbs. Tons. cwts. lbs. 46 24 4 5 9 6 40 47 24 3 10 , , 7 16 73 48 12 2 2 4 U 93 , , , , 49 28 , ^ 3 12 8 2 6 50 21 i 2 12 o"ij 5 18 94 '4 5 3-29 51 32 7 4 15 13 34 ^, 52 14 *f 3 10 0" 12 7 16 73 1 12 46 17-14 53 22 2 5 6 U 11 12 31 1 9 79 11-34 54 17 1 4 3 4 9 107 10 90 5-63 55 13 1 15 . 4 3 81 56 20 '2 3 14 0" 6 8 7 51 16 23 8*82 57 22 4 5 9 6 38 58 17 2 10 5 13 49 59 18 "2 5 10 o"'l2 12 3 8 1 i2 46 11-76 60 17 4 4 1 1 4 8 15 62 2 14 2 23-52 61 25 5 10 16 8 62 16 'i 2 8 0*" 4 5 8 4 16 90 9-09 63 17 4 8 9 14 52 64 23 3 12 .. 8 2 6 65 22 5 12 12 8 54 66 13 '2 1 11 3 3 12 103 "s 11 10*00 67 23 1 4 6 14 9 9 7 4 5 2-00 63 27 1 5 10 2 12 3 8 5 45 2-17 69 18 3 9 7 13 106 70 17 3 9 7 13 106 71 18 3 U 8 7 51 72 18 2 3 8 0" 3 7 11 28 'h 11 5*08 73 18 5 1 10 18 86 74 22 'i 3 10 2 7 16 73 5 45 3-33 75 23 3 2 11 13 5 16 15 1 15 12 23-21 76 16 4 2 2 11 4 11 93 1 9 79 24-44 77 IG 4 3 , , 9 107 78 25 4 1 8 15 62 , , 79 13 4 15 10 13 41 80 35 6 14 14 17 10 81 17 3 2 , , 6 15 5 82 20 *i 5 9 u 12 42 '4 5 l-l'8 83 23 3 14 8 7 51 M 21 *4 2 7 0" 8 5 5 37 1 I 68 17*02 85 14 2 13 6 1 GO . 86 21 "2 3 4 0" 4 7 50 10 90 7*i4 87 22 1 3 5 2 7 3 16 5 45 3-63 88 14 2 4 4 17 2(5 89 21 'i 3 6 0" 1 7 5 95 *2 78 1*81 90 10 1 2 3 u 4 14 59 4 5 4-10 Avera§ 'e. 19-8 0-8 3 13i 2i 8 6 1 7 49 4-28 58 EXPERIMENTS WITH KEEEKENCE TO THE POTATO DISEASE. Jersey Blue Potatoes planted in Jiills, the stems being lay- ered and earthed up successively . — The results from hills 46 to 90 inclusive are given in Table IV. This differed from the pre- ceding experiment in regard to layering the stems, and in their receiving two earthings up instead of one. Soil for this could not be dug from the alleys without interfering with the roots of the potatoes ; it was therefore brouglit from another quarter. In 24 out of 45 hills the tubers were all sound, but the average quantity diseased was more, and the amount of sound produce less, than where earthing up, without layering, was performed at once. A plot of ground was planted with potatoes in the Kitchen Garden in the same manner as regards the depth of sets, distance between the plants, and rows, as in the preceding experiments. The ground was in good condition ; but had no manure when the potatoes were planted. The varieties were tlie Early Manly, Early Champion, and Cornish Kidney ; cut tubers were employed for sets. The stems of all grew vigorously in the first instance ; and in appearance the foliage was very healthy till the beginning of June. But at an early stage, when the plants were only a little above ground, it was found that the blanched part of the stems below ground was faintly tinged with brown. The tinge was at first quite superficial ; but it deepened to a more rusty colour as the disease progressively effected the destruction of the tissue. Fungi of course soon began to lay hold of the dead matter. The spongioles were also affected ; still the plants showed no signs of disease above ground till the beginninq: of June, as above mentioned. After this the youngest foliage appeared of too pale a green. In the middle of June blotches were observed on some of the leaves. On the 18th of June the following ex- periments were commenced : their results are given in Table V. Sulphuric acid, more or less diluted with water, was applied to 6 contiguous rows of the Cornish Kidney, being distributed over the tops by means of a watering-pot. The degrees of dilu- tion were as follow : — 1 . Sulphuric acid 1 part to 1 2 J parts of water, by measure. 2. „ 1 „ 25 3. „ 1 „ 50 4. „ 1 „ 100 „ 5. „ 1 „ 1.50 „ 6. „ 1 „ 200 . „ The 6 row s to which the above were applied were each 22 feet in length. Sidphuric acid 1 part to 12^ parts ofivater. — Table V. 1. Tlie quantity to a row was 2 pints of sulphuric acid in 25 pints of water. This, estimated per acre, amounts to 212 gallons of sulphuric acid, and 2650 gallons of water. It was of course EXPERIMENTS WITH REFERENCE TO THE POTATO DISEASE. 59 expected that the plants would be destroyed where touched by this strongest application ; but the experiment was made in order to ascertain whether or not the whole plant would be destroyed ; and if not, whether the roots would send up fresh shoots. In a few hours after the application, the foliage was mostly decom- posed ; the peduncles and young fructification entirely so. The calyces were reddened ; and likewise in some instances the folia- ceous decurreiice along the angles of the stems. The stems a little under and a little above the surface of the ground were tinged of a bright crimson colour. The foliage changed first to a foxy brown, bleaching to a dull white next day. On the third day after the application it was observed that the por- tions of stems which were crimson-coloured in the first instance had clianged to a dull white, the external tissue being decom- posed. Where the decomposition extended on the stem below the surface of the ground, a fungus of a bluish-green colour began to make its appearance. The stems above ground were, in short, all destroyed. A few sprung afi'esh from below the surface. When taken up, September 24th, the amount of sound produce estimated per acre was 1 ton 93 lbs. There were no diseased tubers. Table V. — Results of Experiments with Cornish Kidney, Early Manly, and Early Champion Potatoes, planted 7 inches deep, in the Kitchen Garden, in rows 2 feet 4 inches apart, and 8 inches from plant to plant in the rows ; cut Tubers employed for Sets. Results 1 to 14 are each from 22 feet of i-ow; 15 and 16 from 50 feet. Weight I Weight Estimated Rate of Produce per Acre. Sate . irCent. Diseased, i Diseased. 1. — Cornish Kidney. Sulphuric acid, 1 to IS^watnr , , 1 to as , , ,, 1 to 50 ,, ,, 1 to 100 ,, 1 to 150 ,, 1 to 200 Pints. I lbs. 02. lbs. oz. Nothins 2. — Earf.y Manly. Sulphate of magnesia , Chloride of lime Nothing , 3. — Early Champion. Five rows, each 10 feet in length, plants tupped May 17th . . . iFive rows, each 10 feet in length, plants not topped 17 3 20 2 22 5 25 31 8 10 15 21 21 7 23 6 26 11 Tons.cHt.lbs 1 93 19 99 6 10 29 7 12 58 8 11 98 9 9 44 11 18 71 5 14 1 1 1 6 1 2 4 2 96 7 19 10 8 2 45 8 17 9 10 2 20 8 2 98 18 I 8 13 86 0-00 000 3-84 8-78 11'19 12'28 8-65 1-13 0-00 4-19 4-27 0-23 1'96 3-24 5 7 11 1 1 2 10 S ' 11 7 6 1 3 37 ; 9-56 1 14 111 13-35 60 EXPERIMENTS WITH KEFERENCE TO THE POTATO DISEASE. Sulphuric acid 1 part to 25 parts of water. — Table Y. 2. The quantity of sulphuric acid to a row of 22 feet in length was 1 pint in 25 pints of water, being at the rate of 106 gallons of sulphuric acid, and 2650 gallons of water per acre. In this experiment the general appearances were similar to those exhi- bited in the preceding; but the stems and foliage were not de- stroyed to so great an extent. The produce, however, was nearly -g-V less than where double the quantity of acid was em- ployed. In this, as in the other case, there were no diseased tubers. Sulphuric acid 1 jjart to 50 parts of water. — Table V. 3. Quantity to a row \ pint in 25 pints of water, estimated per acre, 53 gallons sulphuric acid, and 2650 gallons of water. The stems and foliage were less injured by tlie acid than in the pre- ceding case. In tlie course of a week after the application, not- withstanding the partial destruction of the foliage, the roots emitted healthier fibres and runners than those of plants to which nothing was applied. At the end of June, roots of healthy appearance were even proceeding from the part of the stem between where the acid had decomposed the bark at and a little under the surface of the ground, and where the bark was quite dead from disease next the old set. The quantity of sound produce was at the rate of 6 tons 10 cwt. 29 lbs. per acre. The diseased portion was scarcely 4 per cent, of the whole produce. Sulphuric acid 1 j^ait to 100 parts of tvater. — ^Table V. 4. Quantity to a row \ pint in 25 parts of water. Estimated quan- tity per acre 26 l gallons of sulphuric acid, and 2650 gallons of water. Tiie foliage, compared with that in the preceding rows, was injured in a less degree than tliat corresponding with the ratio in which the acid was ajiplied. Yet many of the leaves were partially burned. The effects of the acid were more espe- cially manifested round the margins of the leaflets. But the peduncles and calyces appeared in all cases most readily affected by the application. Even at this degree of the •dilution, the pe- duncles drooped, and the calyces turned red in a few hours after the application, and next day became brown. The amount of sound produce was upwards of a ton per acre above that of the preceding experiment ; but the per-centage diseased was also greater, being fully equal to that of the row which had nothing. Sulphuric acid 1 part to \oO parts of icater. — Table Y. 5. Quantity to a row \ pint, in 25 pints of water. Estimated quantity per acre, 17 gallons 5 pints of sulphuric acid, and 2650 gallons of water. Compared with the preceding, the foliage was still less injured. Sound produce increased nearly to the esti- mated amount of a ton per acre ; but fully as much as 11 p*er cent, of the total produce was diseased. EXPERIMENTS WITH HEFKREXCE TO THE PuTATO DISEASE. 61 Sulphuric acid 1 part to 200 parts of water. — Table Y. 6. Quantity to a row \ pint, in 25 pints of water. Estimated quan- tity per acre, 13^ gallons of sulphuric acid, and 2650 gallons of water. Diluted to this extent, the acid had the efiect of slightly browning the foliage and partially checking the excessive vege- tation of the tops, M'hich were previously elongating at an over- rapid rate. In consequence of the slower development occa- sioned by this check, leaves of thicker sulDstance and of a darker green were produced. When the growing extremity of a shoot is pinched or checked, the leaves below usually increase in size and in thickness of substance. Such was the case in this expe- riment with regard to the leaves existing previously to the application ; and those subsequently formed were not so soft nor so pale green as leaves of the same age in the adjoining rows, to which nothing was applied. Excessive elongation of the stems and paleness of the foliage being amongst the characteristics of the disease, the effects of the application tending to the reverse of these conditions were favourably anticipated. On referring to the table, it however appears, that altliougli the amount of sound produce, estimated per acre, was upwards of 9 tons 9 cwt., yet the proportion diseased exceeded 12 per cent. In short, the amount of sound produce was less, and the diseased portion more, than in the adjoining row which had nothing. Solutions oi sulphate of magnesia were applied, June 18th, to 3 rows of early Manly potatoes growing in the same plot of ground as those were to which the sulphuric acirl was given. The rows were 22 feet in length ; cut tubers were employed for sets, planted at the same distances as in the preceding experi- ments. The quantities ajjplied to the respective rows were, 2 oz., 1 oz., 2 oz. Sulphate of magnesia, in 25 pints of water. Estimated per acre, the above quantities correspond with 106 lbs., 53 lbs., and 26:^ lbs. To three other rows the same quantities of chloride of lime were similarly applied. For the results, see Table Y. 8 and 13 inclusive. The above solutions did not injure the foliage when applied. They produced no marked effect on the plants. In the row to which 1 oz. of sul- phate of magnesia was applied, there were no diseased tubers ; and in the row which had 1 oz. of chloride of lime, less than 1 per cent, was diseased. The Early Manly variety, however, appeared to be less afliected than the others here experimented with ; for the produce of the row which had nothing, Table V. 14, was diseased to the extent of not more than ^\ per cent. A larger proportion than this was diseased in the row to which 62 EXPERIMENTS WITH REFERENCE TO THE POTATO DISEASE. J oz. of sulphate of magnesia was given ; and also in that which had 2 oz. of cliloride of lime. Toppi7ig the stems.— T&h\e V. 15. On the 17th of May, the plants in 5 rows of the Early Champion were toj^ped. They were then rapidly elongating in the same compartment with tlie Cornish Kidney and Early Manly above mentioned. The rows Avere each 10 feet in length. About two inches were cut off from the extremity of every shoot. A corresponding extent of adjoining rows was marked off at the same time ; but in this the plants were not stopped. The amount of sound produce was at the rate per acre of 6 cwt. 5 lbs. in favour of not stopping. The operation of stopping must therefore be considered disadvan- tageous. With regard to the pi'oportion diseased, the topped plants had the advantage ; for whilst these had 9"56 per cent, diseased, those not topped were diseased to the extent of more than 13 per cent. To these experiments a few remarks may be added respecting this year's disease in the Garden of the Society. The disease was watched in the potato-plants in the open ground from an early stage of their vegetation. In the first planted quai'ter, in the kitchen-garden, symptoms of disease were observed in many of the plants almost as soon as they appeared above ground, in the end of May. The parts of the plants above ground were then, and for a considerable time afterwards, exceedingly healtliy in appearance. From superficial observa- tions they would have been pronounced, without hesitation, free from all disease. Insects and fungi were looked for in vain by many practised observers. On examination, the under-ground portions of stems, instead of being white, were found to have acquired a slight brown tinge ; sometimes this was almost uni- versal, but more frequently on one side only, A rustiness, or canker, ensued ; notwithstanding which the stems grew vigor- ously. To prevent all attacks of insects, several rows had powdered lime frequently scattered over them, commencing when the plants had just got above ground. The lime em- ployed was of the most caustic description, and reduced to powder, not by slaking, but by grinding, being such as is pre- pared in this manner for certain purposes of the builder. Tiie disease, however, progressed in the plants limed similarly as in those adjoining, which were not limed. Whether more or less affected, the plants grew tall in the kitchen-garden quarters ; yet their stems were not so generally destitute of axillary shoots as was the case with those under the influence of the disease in EXPEEIMENTS WITH KEFERENCE TO THE POTATO DISEASE. 63 the two previous seasons. The skin of the under-ground parts of the stems, at first only discoloured, had a withered appearance wlien examined in tlie middle of Jiuie ; and about that period some spots began to appear on the foliage. It may be remarked that the above indications were similar to those observed in the preceding season ; and it was fully expected that the stems and foliage would rot as soon as wet weather favoured the process ; for such result followed similar symptoms in 1846. In that year, with disease producing visible effects on the plants below ground, and doubtless pervading their whole vegetation, it was not expected that the stems would be able to continue a supply of nourishment to the tubers ; and in the end of June an attempt was made, by additional earthing up, to induce fresh roots above the decaying under-ground part of the stems. A few roots were produced, but insufficient to re- invigorate the bulky, but unsound, tops. From continued de- prival of adequate nourishment, and from inherent local disease, the stems subsequently flagged during a period of heat and drought. Dryness not being conducive to the rotting of vege- tables, the potato stems lingered till they became surcharged with moisture, admitted through diseased tissue. In a few days the whole of the stems and foliage was completely disorganized, and became a mass of putrefliction. Judging from a comparison of symptoms and extent of disease at the beginning of July, in tliis and the preceding crop, it cer- tainly was not anticipated that the plants would exhibit any signs of decidedly healthy vegetation during the remaining period of their existence, in the present season. In the course of last July, from prostrated stems, some very fresh healthy foliage was however produced ; healthy tissue was in many instances protruded over the cankered portions of the ujider- ground parts of the stems ; and fresh roots were also then emitted. Nothing like this healthy action was evinced by potato plants in 1845 and 1846, in the Garden of the Society, at a similar period of their groA\'th. The foliage, which resulted from an apparently fresh start of growtli in July, was of a lively green, very different from tliat yellowish tint which characterized the young foliage produced at a similar period in the two former seasons. From this fresh foliage the healthy substance must have returned vuiconfaminated along the stems till it reached the previously diseased parts on the under-ground portion of stem. It had then no longer any direct cliannels ; and like the organized matter from the base of a cutting, it was excreted in the form of comparatively naked tissue. Even in this state it seemed not affected by the diseased surface over which it progressed ; and this leads to the conclu- 64 EXPERIMENTS WITH REFERENCE TO THE POTATO DISEASE. sion that the disease had in last July ceased to be active. Stems and foliage produced under its influence, and tubers connected with them, did retain vestiges of previous morbid action. It was not to be expected, although liie plants exhibited signs of returning health, that the tubers, commencing their organization when disease was prevailing, would be sound. One observation, favourable to the presumed return of the potato plant to a healthy state, may yet be introduced. In 1845 the haulm com- menced to die off rapidly in the middle of August. In a few days not a green leaf was to be seen in whole fields. In the present season, there was a sprinkling of fi'esh foliage remaining in many instances two months later, and in some till the middle of November. Potatoes raised from Seeds. In consequence of the strong opinion entertained by many persons, that the potato disease is caused by exhausted vitality, and that therefore it would disappear if the vitality were re- invigorated by raising seedlings, some experiments directed to that point have also been instituted. Potato seeds were received from Baden, through Mr. John Adams, of Bromsgrove ; from Mussooree, through the East India Company ; from Poland, sent to Lord Palmerston by Co- lonel Du Plat, her Majesty's Consul at Warsaw ; and from Messrs. Hardy, Maldon, in Essex. Some of these were sown in pans in the vinery, the plants being afterwards hardened off in a cool frame previously to planting in the open ground. The re- sults are given in Table VI. Table VI. — Results of Sowing Potato Seeds. Weight German seed, from Baden, sown in gentle }ieat April '6 ; plant- ed out April 30 Ditto Seed from Mussooree, sown in the open ground March 18 . . Seed from Mussooree, sown in gentle heat April 3 ; planted out April 30 Seed from Poland, sown in gentle heat May 24 ; planted out June 16 Seed from Poland, sown in the open ground May 24 .... Ditto Ditto Seed from Maldon, Essex, sown in the open ground March 18 . 15 13 14 9 7 2 1 15 Weight Calculated Rate of Produce per Acre. 1 11 2 12 1 13 3 15 4 3 3 15 4 2 41 3 15 95 1 6 30 2 8 30 1 2 87 8 15 1 3 12 3 13 35 Rate per Cent. Diseased. 8 88 14 25 1 8 86 2 31 9-G4 15-84 25-00 18-42 9 49 13-94 1 33 1 1 90 1 53 1 10 74 47-36 72-82 47-01 29-44 NOTES ON THE WILD POTATO. 65 It will be observed, that those forwarded in heat and trans- planted, gave a better produce ^^■ith a less proportion diseased than those sown at once in the open ground. Nos. 1, 2, 4, and 5, transplanted, gave on the average 2 tons 14 cwt. 10 lbs. of sound produce estimated per acre ; and of the total produce 14-46, or very nearly 14+ per cent., was diseased. The results of Nos. 3, 6, 1, 8, 9, sown in the open ground, were at tlie rate of 1 ton 6 cwt. 80 lbs. of sound produce ; and of their total pro- duce upwards of 44 per cent, was diseased. When sown in the open ground, the seeds of course must be near the surface, and the roots are consequently more shallow than is the case where the seedlings are transplanted. But whatever mode may be adopted, it is evident that no good result, as immediately regards the disease, is likely to be derived from sowing seeds. Nor can it be said that of all the experiments thus detailed any one has proved so effectual in stopping the disease as to offer satisfac- tory proof that a perseverance in it would be advantageous. XIU.— Notes on the Wild Potato. By John Lindley, Ph. D., F.R.S., Vice-Secretary. Among the speculations that have been entertained respecting the Potato disease, one consisted in the belief, that in order to be secure against its future ravages, it was only necessary to bring the plant once more from its native country, and begin over again the process of domesticating it. Before entering upon this experiment, it was necessary to ascertain with certainty what the native country of the Potato really is ; for it did not appear probable that domesticated Po- tatoes, although brought from the regions in which the plant is wild, would be exempt; nor indeed could experiments with va- rieties already affected by domestication satisfy the conditions of the problem. The soundness of the opinion just expressed is sufficiently shown by the highly diseased condition of New Grenada Potatoes, cultivated in England in 1847, and by the result of an exjieriment in the Society's Garden in 1847 upon the golden Potatoes of Peru. In the autumn of 1846, a barrel of this variety was liberally given to the Society by Messrs. Gibbs, Bright, and Co., of Liverpool. The tubers were planted in Nov. 1846. When they appeared above ground it was found, that besides the Golden Potato of a yellowish colour, with yellow flesh, there were two others — one having bright rose-coloured blossoms, with red roots and tubers ; the other large purplish blossoms and round mottled tubers. The Golden variety was much diseased, nearly one-third of the crop being affected. The VOL, iir. 66 NOTES ON THE WILD POTATO. other two varieties escaped. It is obvious that the latter cir- cumstance is precisely analogous to what occurs with our Eng- lish varieties, wlien some sorts escape in some places, while other sorts in the same places are diseased. Notwithstanding all the researches that have been made into the origin of the truly wild potato, doubtful and contradictory evi- dence still obscures its history. Not to notice the old rejected statements on this subject, we find Meyen (Botanical Geography, p. 312, Eng. ed.) giving as its native stations the whole western side of South America, mentioning, that he himself found it wild in two places on tlie Cordilleras of Peru and Chile ; and adopting the evidence of the Spanish botanists, Ruiz and Pavon, that it occurs wild on the mountain of Chancay ; but pronouncing positively, as it would seem on the authority of Humboldt, that it was not cultivated by the Mexicans before the arrival of Europeans. It is not. however, absolutely certain that the plants found by Meyen and the Spaniards were really Avild ; Mr. Darwin obtained much better evidence upon the sub- ject during the voyage of the Beagle. In latitude 45° S., on the east coast of South America, there is a cluster of islands, called by geographers the Chonos Archipelago. " The wild potato," Mr. Darwin states, " grows on these islands in great abundance, on the sandy, shelly soil near the sea-beach. The tallest plant was four feet in height. The tubers were generally small, but I found one of an oval shape, two inches in diameter : they resembled in every respect, and had the same smell as Eng- lish potatoes ; but when boiled they shrunk nmch, and were Avatery and insipid, without any bitter taste. They are undoubt- edly here indigenous ; they grow as far south, according to Mr. Low, as lat. 50°, and are called Aquinas by the wild Indians of that part ; the Chilotan Indians have a diflierent name for them. Professor Henslow, who has examined the dried specimens which I brought home, says that they are the same with those described by Mr. Sabine, from Valparaiso, but that they form a variety which by some botanists has been considered as spe- cifically distinct. It is remarkable that the same plant should be found on the sterile mountains of central Chile, where a drop of rain does not fall for more than six months, and within the damp forests of these southern islands." There can here be no mistake. A naturalist like Mr. Dar- win could not but know potatoes when he saw them ; and the whole history of their occurrence is exactly that of a wild plant. It is, however, very certain that in Cliile itself the potato is really wild, in the latitude of Valparaiso, for it is described under the name of Maglia by Molina and others; and this potato, sent to England by Mr. Caldcleugh in the year 1822, and grown NOTES ON THK WILD POTATO. 67 in the Garden of the Society, is no more distinguishable from our cultivated varieties than they are from each other. It is true that it has been separated botanically, either as a race or species, under the name of Solanum Comniersonii ; but specimens of this Maglia now before me, gathered in the Garden in 1825, are unquestionably those of the species now cultivated all over Eu- rope. Dr. Hooker (^Flora Antarctica, ii. 330) extends the range of the wild potato by including Peru, Mendoza, and Buenos Ayres, the Maglia reaching quite across the continent, and growing about Buenos Ayres in hedges. The last statement is upon the authority of the late Dr. Gillies ; but as it is not quite certain that the plant he found in such situations is really the Maglia, it seems better to limit the undoubted locality of wild potatoes within the parallels of 30= and 48° 8. lat. This supposes that the potato is not found truly wild in Peru, but that all tlie northern localities mentioned by authors are those of the cultivated plant. Upon tliis supposition the wild potato has not, as far as I am aware, been brought to Europe since the potato disease broke out ; and if so, experimental proof that the wild South American sort is free from disease remains to be obtained. But I believe myself to be in a condition to show that it is a mistake to say that the cultivated potato, that is to say Sola- num tuberosum, is unknown in a wild state in Mexico. To the kindness of Mr. C. A. Uhde, a German gentleman, who has re- sided for many years in the west of Mexico, the Society has been indebted for various samples of wild Mexican potatoes, among which two varieties have been raised, which are undoubt- edly mere forms of the tiue potato, as will be hereafter men- tioned. Tubers of another kind were received, July 25th, 1846, from Michuacan and the Valley of Toluca ; and again in May, 1847, in a packet marked " Native Mexican Potatoes from an elevation of 8000 feet." These produced a tall species, whose stems and leaves were very hairy, so as to have a somewliat hoary appearance. The plants had a strong tendency to produce a vast number of runners, but scaicely any tubers. The few that were occasionally met with were very small. Some were found an inch and a half in length, and an inch in diameter ; but generally they were not larger than the seeds of kidney beans. Their form is somewhat obovate, tapering to the end attached to the runner; and their colour was whitish. They exhibited no symptoms of disease. This potato is also, I think, a mere variety of Solanum tuber- osum, with which it agrees in every thing except its excessive F 2 68 NOTES OX THE WILD POTATO. hoariness, and its unwillingness to produce tubers. When placed by the side of the Maglia of Chile, there is no apparent distinc- tion. It seems to be a white-flowered variety of the Solanura ■verrucosum, figured by Professor Schlechtendahl in liis Hortus Halensis, Fig. 2 ; his plants were raised in the Halle garden from tubers sent from Mineral del Monte by Mr. Charles Ehren- berg, upon whose authority it is stated to be common by path- ways in woods, among ruins of walls (m muris), and elsewhere. I am unable to discover any botanical distinctions between this Solanum verrucosum and another wild Mexican plant, publislied by Schlechtendahl and Bouche in the Verhandlunyen des vereins zur JBejorderung des Gartenbaues in den Preussischen Staaten, vol. ix. p. 317. That plant was from the Volcano of Orizaba, at an elevation of from 10,000 to 11,000 feet, where it is said to be known by the name of " Papa cimarron." The authors just mentioned call it, indeed, Solanum stoloniferum, but it is not so different from S. verrucosum as many cultivated potatoes are from each other. In addition to the foregoing, which appear to prove conclusively that the potato is either wild in Mexico or has become so, two very different potato-bearing plants were received from Mr. Uhde. The first of these was marked " Native Mexican Potatoes, growing at 8000 to 9000 feet elevation." This proved a parti- cularly dwarf sort. It was planted May 2, and was in flower in the end of June. Its flowers are produced close to the ground, and fruit soon succeeds them ; branches then push up, and blossom at the height of 12 to 15 inches. The foliage and stems have a grey appearance ; and yet the hairs upon them are inconsiderable in number and much scattered. The leaves are from 4 to 6 inches long, pinnated like the potato, and often with numerous small leaflets placed between the larger ones ; but many leaves consist of large leaflets alone. The latter form two to three pairs, with a terminal odd one ; they are ex- tremely blunt, broadest at the end, flat, and perfectly sessile. The flowers are nearly an inch across, and bright violet, ar- ranged in loose terminal dicliotomous somewhat scorpioid ra- cemes. Tlie calyx is hairy, and is 5-cleft with acute triangular acuminate teeth. The corolla is 10-toothed, with a nearly cir- cular outline, and reflexed so as to hide the calyx. The stamens are small in proportion to the size of the corolla, and shorter than the style. They are succeeded by smooth globular berries about as large as a black currant. Vei-y few tubers were formed. Many stems had none ; and where they did occur they were small, flattened, somewhat kidney-shaped, and of white colour, with white, crisp, semi-transparent flesh. NOTES ON THE WILD POTATO. 69 Solanum demiss'im. 70 NOTES ON THE WILD POTATO. This appears to be distinct from the potato, and may be called Solanum demissum* because of its dvvarfness. It was attacked by the disease in July. The stems exhibited the characteristic blotches in a ivorse degree than any other sort in the Garderi. The runners were also affected. Amongst the "Tubers of Mexican potatoes growing at 8000 to 9000 feet of elevation," which proved to be chiefly the two sorts last mentioned, there was a plant entirely different from either. It had an erect stiff stem, about a foot in height, very dark-green heart-shaped leaflets, and small cream-coloured flowers much like those of tlie black nightshade (Solanum nigrum). It formed very small roundish white tubers, which were less watery than the last, and it was not attacked by disease. From its having been found mixed with other samples of potatoes, it had probably been gathered accidentally. This species, although producing potato-like tubers, and be- longing to the same section of the genus as the true potato, can in no way be confounded with it. It does not appear to be of any value, but deserves to be put on record as a curious new form of the genus. Its deeply heart-shaped leaves render the name S. cardiophyllum f appropriate. In addition to the foregoing, packets were also received from Mr. Uhde, labelled "Tubers of a Red Potato, found growing wild in Mexico at 8000 feet elevation, possibly brought from Peru ;" and " Tubers of a Potato found in Mexico, supposed to be Peruvian ;" a third packet contained some " Red Po- tatoes, like Peruvian." These all proved to be a small, but productive sort of potato, round and pink-coloured, very like the Azores variety. Amongst them one plant had white kidney- shaped tubers. Their stems and foliage were much like those of some varieties of the common potato, and distinct from the others imported from Mexico along with them. They were all affected slightly by the disease. The foregoing facts, and those adduced in Mr. Thompson's Report, No. XII., prove conclusively that there is no known pre- ventive of the disease ; that neither renewal by seed, nor intro- * S. demissum; herbaceum, prostratum, stoloniferum, tuberosum, csesium, pubescens, foliis subinterrupte pinnatis, foliolis obovatis rotuudatis, calycis 5-ficli laciniis triangularibus acuminatis, corolla circular! lO-dentata, baccis sphsei'oideis glabris. ■j- S. cardiophi/lltim ; herbaceum, erectum, stoloniferum, tuberosum, atro- viride, glaberrimum, foliis auriculatis pinnatis 2-3-jugis, foliolis baud inter- niptis subrotundis cordatis carnosulis decrescentibus, cymis paucifloris terminalibus, calyce glabro cyathiformi quinquedentato, corolla 5-partita laciniis triangularibus planis acuminatis demum revolutis. NOTES ON THE WILD POTATO. Solanum cardiophyllum. 72 NOTES ON THE WILD POTATO. duction from foreign countries, nor treatment in the earth, afford any guarantee against its attacks ; and that its progress cannot, in the present state of our knowledge, be resisted with such suc- cess as to justify the recommendation to the public of any of the remedies hitherto proposed. 73 NEW PLANTS, ETC., FROM THE SOCIETY'S GARDEN. 1. Spir^a expansa. Wall. Cat., Herb. Ind.,No.102. Received from Mr. Glendinning in 1846 ; said to have been raised from seeds received from Kamoon. A bush covered in every part with soft short hairs. Its young branches are brownish green. The leaves are stalked, elliptic lanceolate, simply serrated above the middle, whitish beneath, wrinkled above, and not in the least shining ; but of one uniform dull yellowish green. The flowers are small and pink in broad terminal corymbose panicles, which are so flat as to form the appearance of a table of flowers. In the wild specimens the panicles appear to be as much as nine inches across. It is a hardy shrub, which grows freely in any good common garden-soil, and is easily increased by cutting of the half-ripened wood in the autumn. It must be regarded as a fine species. It remains rather long in flower and blooms abundantly. July 10, 1847. 2. GiLiA PHARNACEOiDES. Betith. ifi Bot. Keg. sub n. 1622. Hooker, Fl. Bor. Am. 2, t. 161. A slender, purple-stemmed branching plant, minutely downy near the base, but otherwise smooth. The leaves, which are opposite, are split as far as the very base into three or five thread- shaped, deep-green segments, whence they appear as if verticillate ; quite at the base they are rather downy. The flowers appear at the ends of the straggling branches on very slender but firm stalks about half an inch long, are a very pale lilac, slightly streaked with a darker tint of the same colour, and measure about half an inch in diameter ; they have a tube no longer than the calyx, and yellow anthers. Their appearance is exactly that of a Leptosiphon without a tube. As a hardy annual and new this may have a little interest, but it is very inferior to the Leptosiphons, which it most resembles. Aug. 28, 1847. 74 NEW PLANTS, ETC., 3. HUGELIA LANATA.* An annual about nine inches high, quite white with the sliort wool that covers every part, except the corolla and organs within it. The leaves are linear, with a somewhat spiny point, and one to three short segments on each side ; they are about two inches long, and have none of the greenness of II. elongata. The flowers are a clear light blue, and are placed in close heads, arranged in a corymbose manner. Beyond their throat project five long linear arrow-headed white anthers. It is not a striking plant, but may be found useful as a novelty among hardy annuals. Aug. 30, 1847. 4. Arthrostemma fragile. f Raised from seeds gathered by Mr. Hartweg in the west of Mexico, and received in January, 1846. A liglit green brittle-stemmed shrub, about three feet high, and covered slightly with fine glandular scattered hairs. Leaves stalked, about two inches long, ovate, very slightly cordate, five- nerved, acute, and finely serrated. Flowers an inch and a half across, in loose few-flowered terminal cymes. Petals oblong, .slightly mucronate, deep rosy purple. Anthers nearly equal in size, furnished at the base with a short incurved bifid spur. Apex of the ovary free, slightly hispid ; its interior is two-celled, with two spurious additional dissepiments, which make it four-celled. Mr. Bentham, in a letter to the Editor, remarks that this species " is not among Mr. Ilartweg's dried plants. As to the genus, it is very near De Candolle's section MonoclicEtum of Arthros- temma ; but the appendages of the anthers are all bifid at the extremity, and the ovary has but two cells instead of four. It diflTers from Ileteronoma by the anthers of both series being fer- tile and nearly equal and similar, as well as by the nervation of * H. lanata ; undique dense albolanata, foliis parce pinnatifidis linearibus subpungentibus laciniis brevibus nunc fere obsoletis, capitulis breviter pedun- culatis subcorymbosis, bracteis paucis brevibus linearibus recurvis subpungen- tibus, calyce lanuginoso cyhndraceo laciniis brevibus erectis integerrimis in- sequalibus tubo corollaj multo brevioribus, staminibus exsertis antberis alte sagittatis, ovulis 6-8. — J. L. f A. fragile (Monochaitum) ; ramulis tetragon is distanter glan- duloso-pilosis, foliis ovato-cordatis acutis quinque-ntrviis argute serratis, cymis laxis terminalibus distanter paucifloris, calycis tubo obovato-oblongo glanduloso, petalis oblongis concavis mucronulatis, antherarum calcare bifido. —J. L. FROM THE SOCIETY'S GAKDEN. the leaves. The setse on the ovary are small and few, but they exist ; and its close affinity is evidently with Arthrostemma (Monoch^tum), a good genus, if all Arthrostemma be not united to Chaetogastra." It is a stove shrub, growing readily in a mixture of loam, peat, and leaf-mould, and easily increased by cuttings. It flowers from June to September, but its blossoms are very fugitive ; they are, however, gay-coloured, and make an agreeable variety, especially as they are associated with a fine deep green shining foliage, Affr/. 31, 1847. 76 NEW PLANTS, ETC., 5. Peperomia pallescens. Miquel, in London Journal of Botany, vol. vi. p. 460. Presented to the Society by G. U. Skinner, Esq., in April, 1846, from Guatemala. A fleshy-stemmed plant, perfectly destitute of fragrance, with soft round fleshy half herbaceous branches. Leaves cordate ovate, very slightly toothed or quite entire, covered beneath and on the foot-stalk with very fine hairs, and marked on each side with minute brown points. Flowers in green drooping tails about six inches long. This stove plant grows freely in a light sandy loam, and is easily increased by cuttings. It flowers in July, is merely curious, not at all ornamental, and only worthy a place in a botanic garden. Sept. 5, 1847. 6. Lycoris straminea.* Received from Mr. Fortune in 1845 from China. This plant, although nearly allied to L. aurea, is distinguished not only by its having pale straw-coloured flowers, with a pink line along the middle of the segments, and a few scattered dots, but also by the segments being shorter, and scarcely at all joined at tlie base in a tube. It is a pretty bulbous plant, apparently as hardy as a Narciss, growing freely in any good rich garden-soil. It is increased by ofl^sets from the old bulbs. If it should prove quite hardy, it will be desirable for the flower-garden. Aug. 30, 1847. 7. OncIDIUM TENUE.f Received through Mr. Hartweg in February 1841, from Guatemala. This is a small Oncid, remarkable for its exceedingly thin pseudo-bulbs, which, although 2 or 3 inches long, are not more than | of an inch thick in the middle, from which they * L. straminea ; ovario subsphserico, lubo brevissimo, perianthii laciniis lineari-oblongis undulatis staminibus brevioribus. — J. L. f O. tcnue ; (§ Heterantbia pentapetala micropetala, labello pandurato) pseudobulbis ovalibus tenuissimis bine obsolete cottalis, foliis membranaceis ovato-lanceolatis patulis, paniculii angust& racemosa, ramulis 3-4-floris, labelli lobo intermedio subrotundo bilobo auriculis paruni latiore, cristse tuberculo 5-7-dentato glabro, cohmmte alis acute triangularibus. — J. L. FROM THE SOCIETY'S GAKDEN. 77 gradually fine away into an edge, which is almost acute. The leaves are thin, oblong-lance- olate, and mucli shorter than the slender narrow racemose panicle, the branches of which are nearly of the same length, each bear- ing 3 or 4 flowers. The latter are not unlike those of Oncidinm Suttoni in size and colour ; that is to say, yellow, mottled with brown. This species is distinguished from Oncidium suave by its broader leaves and acutely triangular co- lumn-wings ; and from O. citri- num by its roundish oblong pseudo-b\ilbs, large column-wings, broad leaves, peculiar habit, e^c. &c. It is not of much beauty, but 78 iVEW PLANTS, ETC., adds something- to the variety previously known among the species of its own division. Fig. 1 represents a transverse section of the pseudo-bulb ; 2 shows the column and lip magnified. Tlie representation of the plant itself is much reduced below the natural size. Sept. 10, 1847. 8. POGOGYNE MULTIFLORA. Benth. Luh., p. 414. Raised from seed collected by Mr. Hartweg, in " fields about Sonoma," in California. A dwarf labiate annual, emitting a strong smell of horsemint, when bruised, owing to the leaves, which are perfecly smooth, except near the base and when they are young, being copiously marked with small pits connected with cystsof volatile oil. Tlie stems are from 4 to 5 inches high, four-cornered, brittle and smooth, branching from the base. The leaves are IJ inch long, including tlie stalk, which in tlie lowest forms one half, oblong, and very blunt ; occasionally they have a minute tooth upon the edge. Tlie flowers are of a jiale lilac colour, and are arranged in spiked verticillasters at the end of the shoots. Each is rather more than \ an inch long, with a 4-lobed bilabiate limb, whose segments are blunt and of nearly equal size. The anthers project a little beyond the orifice ; the hairy style is longer than the upper lip. The bracts are linear-lanceolate, about as long as the corolla, and fringed with long hairs. It is a hardy annual, growing freely in any rich soil, and like most Californian plants of the kind may be sown at different sea- sons. It flowers in Auguj-t and September if sown in May. A rather pretty dwarf spreading species, requiring plenty of moisture in summer to keep it in bloom, which is produced for a long time. Aug. 20, 1847. 9. Clematis tubulosa. Turczaninow, Bulletin des Nat. de Mosc. xi. 148. Received from Dr. Fischer in 1846. This is the most remarkable Clematis in our gardens. It forms a branching upright herbaceous plant, with stiff angular purple downy stems, and great, smooth, shining, ternate leaves, of a pale bright green, the larger leaflets of which are 3 inches long and 2^ broad, bordered by coarse mucronate serratures. The flowers appear in sessile corymbs in the axils of the leaves, on stalks about H i'lch long ; they are about an inch long when full blown, of an intense blue, and extremely handsome. FROM THE SOCIETY'S GARDEX. 79 80 NEW PLANTS, ETC., FEOM THE SOCIETY'S GARDEN. i So different is tliis jjlant in appearance from a Clematis, that the Russian botanist who first described it was in doubt whether it belonged to the genus ; it does not, however, diffier generically, nor do the flowers appear to be unisexual, as he describes them. It was originally found in the north of China by Porphyrins Kirilow, by wliom its seeds must have been com- municated to the Botanical Garden of St. Petersburgh. This fine plant succeeds freely in any good gai den-soil, but can- not be considered anything more than herbaceous, for it retains little of the previous year's growth. It suffered much from cold during last winter, and probably will not be more than half hardy. It is easily increased by cuttings of the young wood, and is a fine, showy, herbaceous plant, flowering in August and September. I ;s r> / Ih'^li^ Sept. 20, 1847. ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS. XIV. — A Notice of some species of Rhododendron inhabiting Borneo. By John Lindley, Ph.D., F.R.S., Vice-Secretary. "When Mr. Hugh Low returned from his visit to Borneo, he was so obliging- as to place in my liands some drawii)gs and dried specimens of certain species of Rliododendron which occur in that island growing upon trees. They are found to be very distinct from all previously known, and in many respects so deserving of notice, that it has been thought advisable to prepare the follow- ing short memorandum concerning them. In Mr. Low's account of Sarawak* they are spoken of thus : — " Perhaps the most gorgeous of the native plants are the va- rious species of the genus Rhododendron, which here assume a peculiar form, being found epiphytal upon the trunks of trees, as in the genera of the tribe Orchidacete. This habit, induced probably by the excessive moisture of the climate, is not, how- ever, confined to the Ericaceous plants, but also prevails with the genera Fagrsea, Combretum, and many others, usually ter- restrial ; the roots of the Rhododendrons, instead of being, as with the species, inhabitants of cold climates, small and fibrous, become large and fleshy, winding round the trunks of the forest- trees ; the most beautiful one is that which I have named in compliment to Mr. Brooke. Its large heads of flowers are pro- duced in the greatest abundance throughout the year: they must exceed in size that of any known species, frequently being formed of eighteen flowers, which are of all shades, from pale and rich yellow to a rich reddish salmon colour. In the sun the flowers sparkle with a brilliancy resembling that of gold-dust. " Four other species which I discovered are very gorgeous, but of diff'erent colours, one being crimson and the other red, and the third a rich tint between the-e two : of tiie fourth I have not yet seen the flowers. Besides the curious nature of the root above noticed, botanists may learn that tliese species differ from others of the genus in having very small, almost imperceptible calyces, and caudal appendages to the seeds ; these last greatly facilitating the attainment of a situation favourable for their growth." — p. Q^. The peculiar habit ascribed to these plants of forming large fleshy stocks, instead of the fine fibrous roots proper to the Aza- leas and Rhododendrons at present in cultivation, is also met * Sarawak : its Inhabitants and Productions, Sec. By Hugh Low, Colo-- nial Secretary at Labuh-an. VOL. III. G 82 A NOTICE OF SOME SPECIES OF Avith in the kindred Cranberries ( Vaccmiacea) of Soutli Ame- rica, among which several Thihaudias may be named ; tlie epi- phytal cliaracter has indeed been observed among plants still more nearly allied to Rhododendron, as in Anthopterus racemosus and a species of Sphyrospermum, both which grow upon trees in the Peruvian Andes. Tlie four species now described belong to a supposed genus called Vireya by Blume, and distinguished from Rhododendron by tlie seeds being extended at each end into a slender tail-like process. But this circumstance, the only one that is at all pecu- liar to the Malay Rhododendrons, disappears in Vireya retusa-, whose seeds are shown by Dr. llorsfield's figure of that plant to be in no respect different from those o^ Rhododendron arhoreum. In the latter species the seeds are furnished with short thick hairs at each end ; in Rhododendron campanidatum tiiey are reduced to mere tubercles ; in Azalea indica they w holly disappear ; while in Azalea pontica they occur in the form of thick processes connected with a broad wing which surrounds the seed either wholly or in part. Hence we are led to infer that such circum- stances are of no generic value, and therefore botanists have universally rejected the genus Vireya. I,-^-Rhododendron Brookeanum. Lota. Sp. Char. Leaves oblong-lanceolate, acute, perfectly smooth, nearly sessile, without any trace of dotting or marking on the under side. Peduncles smooth. Flowers in loose umbels. Calyx obsolete. Corolla between funnel-shaped and campanu- late, 5-lobed ; the lobes retuse, revolute, nearly as long as the tube. Stamens 10, prominent, with linear converging anthers. This noble plant not only grows on trees, but, according to one of Mr. Low's memoranda, is occasionally met with " on moss- covered limestone rocks, flowering from November to July." Another note upon it is the following : — " I shall never forget the first discovery of this gorgeous plant ; it was epiphytal upon a tree which was growing in the water of a creek. The head of flowers was very large, arranged loosely, of the richest golden yellow, resplendent when in the sun ; the habit was graceful, the leaves large. The calyx of this and the other Borneo species is so small as to be scarcely per- ceptible. Tlie roots are large and fleshy, not fibrous as those of the terrestrial Rhododendrons. It is the least common of all the genus in the island, and has many varieties, Avhich differ in liaving larger flowers and leaves : the former of a more or less red colour. Very high and lai'ge trees in damp forests are its favourite haunts." RHODODEXDBOX IMIABITING EOENEO. 83 Khododendron Brookeaiinin, G 2 84 A NOTICE OF SOME SPECIES OF In his Sarawak we find it mentioned in the following para- graph : — " The still river, winding its way amidst the limestone, which is shaded with overhanging trees, is nevertheless very pretty ; and the hill opposite to wliich we now lie rises in a precipice 200 feet above our heads, its face being covered with climbing plants, and the projections of the rocks covered with ferns and other plants, among which I observed the bright flowers of the beau- tiful and new yellow Rhododendron Brookeanum, and tlie ele- gant fern-like foliage of a large-leafed, stemless palm." — p. 374. This species is allied to Rhododendron ^avanicuni, from which it differs in having much larger flowers, and nearly sessile, not long-stalked, leaves, the under side of which is entirely destitute of the rusty specks which characterise the Java plant. Coloured drawings of two varieties are before me, — one yellow, the other rich red. The Yelloiv is represented with 14 flowers in a loose cluster, of a rich buff colour, and two inches across the limb. The colour, however, is stated by Mr. Low to be incorrect, and it is pro- bably much too dull. The annexed cut represents this variety diminished. The Red has larger leaves, and only five flowers in a cluster, in colour resembling the Azalea i?idica lateritia, but richer. They are more than three inches across the limb. Of the former of these dried specimens have been preserved, from which and the drawing together the figure has been pre- pared. II. — Rhododendron gracile. Lotv. Sp. Char. Leaves lanceolate, very long, drooping, tapering sharply to each end, quite smooth, but indistinctly marked on the under side with dark freckles. Peduncles smooth, much shorter than the flowers. Calyx obsolete. Corolla funnel- shaped, with a tube much longer than the irregular limb, whose lobes are flat, very blunt, and imbricated. Stamens exserted ; anthers erect. " This slender and beautiful Rhododendron," says Mr. Low, " is found on rocks at the ' Sirul ' mouth of the Sarawak River. It is confined to a space of ground not extending over 200 yards square, and was never seen in any other place. It grows luxu- riantly upon the sandstone rocks, wliich are covered with moss and decaying leaves to the height of from 4 to 6 feet. The seeds have tails, and, with the exception of its place of growth, it resembles the other Bornean species. It flowers all the year round," EHODODENDKON INHABITING BORNEO. 85 Rhododendron giacile. 86 A NOTICE OF SOME SPECIES OF Its leaves are 6 or 7 inches long, and about Lj inch broad. The flowers are nearly 3 inches long and about 2 across the limb ; they are of a rich fiery red, with a pale violet-coloured throat; the anthers are deep brown. In the drawing before me they are uniformly repi'eseiited as having one or two of tlieir lobes bent downwards more than the others ; this peculiarity is also traceable in the dried specimens. The accompanying figure is much reduced below the natural size, as will be evident from the measurements given above. III. — Rhododendron verticillatum. Loio. Sp. Char. Young branches slightly downy. Leaves oblong, obtuse, stalked, heart-shaped at the base, downy on the petiole and midrib, dotted abundantly on the under side, arranged in irregular whorls. Peduncles downy, as long as the flowers. Calyx obsolete. Corolla nearly campanulate, with an erect 51obed limb. Anthers projecting, erect. Of this plant I have seen no drawing ; and the dried specimens are imperfect. It is, however, perfectly distinct from the other Malay Rhododendrons. Mr. Low has the following note about it in his Journal, October 14, 1846 : — " Near the top of the mountain (Gunong Penerissen, 4700 ft.) I discovered a plant of the smaller-leaved Rhododendron, which, for distinction's sake, I call R. verticillatum, in flower. On pro- curing it, which was done with some difficulty, as it was epiphy- tal on a tree overhanging the rocky side of the mountain, it had but one head of expanded flowers, which were of a reddish crim- son colour, without spots. It was of large size in proportion to the leaves and stems, being 10 inches in diameter, and very com- pact. The leaves are verticillate, many in a whorl, and the wood buds are closely imbricated with scales, broad at the base, and with recurved points. The roots are long and flesliy, like those of the yellow Rhododendron (Brookeanum), It is found on the sides of the Dacrydiums and other trees, which are covered at that height with large and long moss. The atmosphere is very damp'; and at night the thermometer stood at 64° F." The leaves of this plant are in form like those of lihododcn- dron campanidatum, but are entirely free from the rusty down which covers the under side of that species ; in its room the surface is thickly studded with minute ferruginous points ; they are convex, revolute at the edge, and the largest 4 inches long by 2J wide. The flowers are between 2 and 3 inches long and about If inch across the limb. EirODODEXDRON IXHABITING BORNEO. 87 Rhoilodentlron verticiUatuni. 88 A NOTICE OF SOME SPECIES OF IV". — HlIODODENDRON LONGIFLORUM. Sp. Char. Leaves verticillate, perfectly smooth, shining, obo- vate, convex, with a revolute edge, shortly stalked, with copious green points on both, especially the under sides. Pe- duncles short, erect, downy. Calyx obsolete. Corolla 3 or 4 times as long as the peduncles, with a long curved tube, and an erect short bluntly 5-lobed equal limb, which even- tually falls back. Stamens as long as the corolla. Anthers short. " This remarkable plant," Mr. Low writes, " is found on high trees in low and damp jungles in the vicinity of Sarawak ; it grows about 8 feet high, and when covered with its crimson tube- shaped blossoms is exceedingly beautiful. It flowers when very small, but does not grow very freely until after it has attained considerable size. Its seeds are tailed, and in general habit it approaches the yellow and verticillate species (7?. verticil- latinn)." Although smaller in every part than the species previously described, this is hardly inferior in beauty, on account of the in- tense crimson colour of its long tubular blossoms. The latter are very distinctly curved, full 2 inches long, and grow in close heads, each consisting of from 9 to 10 flowers. The leaves are about 1^ inch broad, and 3^ inches long. Mr. Low calls this species Rhododendron tubijlorum, a name I am obliged to alter, because it is not the same as the Vireya (or Rhododendron^ tubijlora of Blume. It has been suggested to me that these fine plants will not prove cultivable, because they are epiphytes. I cannot concur in this opinion. The mode of managing epiphytes is now so well un- derstood, in respect to Orchids and Bromelworts, that even if it should be necessary to treat the Malay Rhododendrons in the same manner, no serious difficulty can be apprehended. Blume tells us that the Java species are mostly " parasitical on trees," that is to say epiphytes ; and yet the Rhododendron javanicum is as manageable as Rhododendron arhoreum. The probability however is, that they do not require to be treated as epiphytes, and that, like orchids, they will grow better if committed judiciously to the earth. It was a sagacious re- mark of the late Dean of Manchester, that we are wrong in sup- posing plants always to prefer the places in which they are found naturally. He believed that plants often occupy particular sta- tions, and exhibit particular habits, on account of the necessity of their position, and because in more favourable places they KlIODODENDRON INHABITING BOENEO. 89 Rhododendron longiflorum. would be smothered by the surrounding vegetation. This may possibly be the case with the plants in question. It is quite conceivable that they may have taken refuge in Borneo in the branches of trees, because of the impossibility of establishing themselves in the marshy soil of a country frequently under water for long periods at a time : and there is nothing in the nature of tilings to render it improbable that the saturated air may yield them all the food they require in a country visited 90 SPECIES OF RHOBODENDEON INHABITING BOENEO. by incessant thunderstorms, which deposit large stores of nitro- gen upon every branch and every leaf. In this view of their nature, it may be conjectured that the Malay Rhododendrons will grow under the usual treatment of a damp stove, provided the soil in whiclx they are potted is chiefly composed of loose decayed vegetable materials, such as half and wholly rotten leaves and sticks. It will also be important to consider whether in resting them, it will be requisite to do more than slightly lower their temperature, and diminish, without withholding, the moisture which they appear to require. From the statements of Mr. Low, it would appear that Rhododendron gracile is perpetually in bloom, a circumstance that leads to the inference that a season of rest must be almost unknown to it. Unfortunately we have no tolerable account of the details of the Bornean climate : the temperature of the soil, or the data from which it could be computed, the amount of atmospheric moisture, the relation which the cold of night bears to the heat of day, the rate at which temperature fluctuates, are all matters upon which information is wanted. In the meanwhile, Mr. Low's Sarawak must be taken as our best guide in the inquiry ; and with the following extracts from his work, the present me- morandum may be closed. " The climate of Borneo, like that of most of the eastern islands, has been found exceedingly healthy to persons whose avocations do not render great exposure necessary. The north- east monsoon, or that which blows from April to October, is the rainy period ; but a day rarely passes during the south-west or fine monsoon, without a refreshing shower ; this with the con- stant warmth, causes everything to grow during the whole year, the forests being clothed with a perpetual verdure, which gives the islands, wdien seen from the sea, a beautiful appearance, pos- sessed by no country in the world to so great an extent ; shrubs (Hibiscus) and flowering trees (Barringtonia) always overhang- ing the margin of the ocean, and the inland mountains are ob- served covered to their summits with a dense and luxuriant vegetation. " In temperature it has never been found by Europeans to be oppressively hot ; the thermometer generally averaging 70° to 72' Fahrenheit in the mornings and evenings, and 82° to 8.")° at 2 P.M., which is generally the hottest part of the day ; and though in the dry season the mercury has sometimes ascended as high as 92°, and occasionally 93°, it has not been felt so in- conveniently oppressive to Europeans as a hot summer day in England."— p. 3L " Though the vegetation of no country in the world is so lux- uriant as that of the eastern islands, it has been proved by many ON A PECULIAU FOKM OF MILDEW IN ONIONS. 91 writers that the soil of some of them is not so fertile as the appearance of the forests would lead the cultivator to expect. This remark particularly applies to Sumatra, the forests of which are supported in their luxuriance, in a great measure by the moisture of the surrounding atmosphere." — p. 32. " Thunder and lightning are so very frequent as to be little regarded by the inhabitants, though the former is more sonorous and the latter more vivid than in Europe. — In all the quiet seas of the East the lightning is very much dreaded by European shipping. A heavy shower of rain is always preceded by light- ning and thunder, and generally by strong wind." — p. 31. "Left early for Sebonyoh (Dec. 6). — One mountain near it had had all its trees destroyed about twelve months since by a fire, which had been ignited by the intensity of the sun's rays on the rock beneath, and which had so dried the vegetation that it spontaneously took fire, and the whole were destroyed. Notliing but a succession of very wet summers can again restore it." — p. 399. The custom of building the houses on tall posts to keep them out of the water, sufficiently shows how formidable the floods must be in Borneo, and how damp such an atmosphere must be under a temperature of 85^. XV. — On a peculiar foi-ni of 3Iilderv iti Onions. By the Rev. M. J. Berkeley, M.A., F.L.S. Few crops more frequently disappoint the exioectations of the cultivator than onions. Wet and dry seasons are alike injurious, and there are few years in which they do not suffer more or less from mildew ; and this not merely under a bad system of culti- vation or in indifferent soil, for highly mildewed crops occur in the most favourable situations, and where the management of them is best understood. The fields at Sandy, in Bedfordshire, where perhaps the best onions in England are grown, are ex- tremely subject to mildew, as can scarcely have escaped the notice of any one who has been in the habit of travelling year after year along the road from St. Neot's to London. Neither is the mildew of one kind only, or confined to one particular or- gan or portion of the plant. Whole beds are destroyed in an early stage of growth by a parasitic fungus which attacks the leaves, and is nearly allied to Botrytis infestans., but which, in- stead of being white, is of a pale reddish grey, with spores far more elongated, and flocci quite destitute of the nodules which are so characteristic of tiie potato mould. Sometimes the crop seems for a time to be healthy, but gradually, after the formation 92 ON A PECULIAR FORM OF MILDEW IN ONIONS. of the bulb, acquires a sickly hue, which rapidly increases : the leaves wither ; the roots decay, and are covered at their junction with the bulb with a filmy mucedinous web ; the bulb itself ultimately becomes loose from the destruction of the roots, and as the mould spreads entirely decays. In other instances a pla- centaeform Sclerotiiim is formed at the base of the bulb, of greater or less size ; while in other instances, again, the whole substance of the bulb and neck is impregnated with mycelium, in the midst of which appear multitudes of little black seed -like grains, which have been described as Sclerotium Cepse, Lib. ;* and specimens have been published under that name in the 4th Fasciculus of British Fungi. Still other forms of mildew occur, but it is to this latter that my attention has been more espe- cially directed. The dry summer of 1847 was in many districts extremely in- jurious to the onion crops. AVhole breadths at once became dry and withered, frequently not from the presence of any disease, but from mere lack of moisture, and the bulbs were extremely small and insignificant. Mildew also was very prevalent, and various examples were forwarded to Dr. Lindley ; some of which, and amongst them the form under consideration, were placed in my hands for examination. I happened at the time to be staying at Margate, where my friend Mr. G. H. Hoffman, with the as- sistance of a good compound microscope, had been making some observations on the mycelium of the parasitic fungi which attend or produce mildew, and I was glad of the opportunity of exa- mining the present parasite with him. The specimens were somewhat decayed, in consequence of having been some time on the road, and their odour was extremely disgusting. On making a section through tlie plant, every part of it was found to be more or less decomposed, and filled with white mycelium, which was occasionally greenish from the juices of the matrix ; amongst which appeared the Sclerotium^ in various stages of growth, distinguished in the younger specimens by its compact substance, and in the older by the dark blackish cuticle. It was a matter of importance to ascertain, if possible, what was the nature of these globular bodies ; and the manipulation applied by Mr. Hoff"man to the observation of mycelium in other cases ap- peared likely to lead to some positive result. Leveillef has, in his interesting memoir on the genus Sclero- tium, combated the pretensions of the substances comprised under that name to occupy a place amongst autonomous fungi ; and, though his observations are as conclusive as the nature of the case would admit, without an experiment like that now recorded, * Libert, Plantse Cryptogamicse Arduennce, No. 238. f Annales des Sciences Naturelles, 2^''^ Se'rie, vol. xx. p. 218. ON A PECULIAR FORM OF MILDEW IN ONIONS. 93 which alone could furnish the means of seeing- the actual deve- lopment of the fungi from the mycelium of which they are so many anamorphoses, they require some direct confirmation, which does not, however, at all detract from their own original merit. It became, therefore, a matter of interest to embrace the oppor- tunity now offered of following up the point. It is well known that it is possible to watch many mucedines from the first germination of the spore to the complete develop- ment of the fructification, by simply placing the reproductive bodies in a drop of water on a slip of glass, covering it with a piece of microscopic glass, and luting the edges with wax to prevent evaporation. The mycelium is developed in the water, while the fertile branches make their way into the surrounding stratum of air, and bear fruit. It was determined to subject a portion of the mycelium from the tissues of the diseased onion, and a portion of the sclerotium, to this process. In one slip of glass our success was complete, in the others more or less per- fect. A single observation, if possible, should not be relied upon. An extremely thin slice from the stem was taken, so thin as to enable us to distinguish easily the several parts of which the object was composed. The cells and vessels of the matrix were well defined, and the mycelium connected evidently with the sclerotioid granules, which were separated from each other by veins of flocci, very much in the same way in which sporangia of certain fungi are combined. It was easy also to recognise the structure of the Sclerotiiuii as well externally as internally. The inner tissue was found to be not compactly cellular like that of Sclerotium durum, complanatuin, &c., but filamentous, as in Sclerotium Boletorum, Corda, consisting of closely interwoven branched threads resembling on a small scale. the tissue of the seed-pods of Fucus vesiculosus. This structure, it is obvious, made it more easy to trace the continuation of the mycelium from the tissue of the Sclerotium. After the expiration of a few hours the slices began to assume a different appearance, from the elongation of the mycelium, which was protruded on all sides, and was branched and Hexuous. Some portions were repeatedly articulated, others either entirely without articulations, or with merely one or two scattered dissepi- ments. As long as the mycelium was confined to the drop of water, there was no appearance of fructifiication, and even the tips of the filaments were scarcely incrassated. There was not, then, the slightest iutimation to what genus of fungi it belonged ; but no sooner had it penetrated through the globule of water into the surrounding air, than a marked change took place. The tips of the short lateral branches became incrassated, and at length globose, and contained a grumous mass, which soon mani- fested definite spores ; shortly after which the vesicle burst, and 94 ON A PECULIAR I'OUM OF MILDEW IN ONIONS. the oblong elliptic spores were exposed, still adhering to the tips of the threads, characters belonging manifestly to the genus 3Iucor. Tlie sporangia, however, were of exti'eme minuteness, not exceeding in diameter that of the individual cells of tlie onion stem on which they grew ; the appearance, indeed, was that of an Acremonium, but the globular heads of that genus have not been observed to be sporangia, and \yere such indeed the case, there would be no character by which to separate it from 3Iucor except the comparative minuteness.* No columella was observed, but it is possible that in so very minute a body, examined in air without the aid of a liquid medium, which every microscopic observer knows to be of the first importance, it might have been overlooked. One or two very minute species have been observed by authors as Miicor succosus ; by myself, on inspissated sap oozing from the stem of Aucuha Japonica ; Mucor Fimbria, by Nees, and Mucor imperccptihilis, by Sclnank ; but the two former are far larger productions, and the nature of the latter, which grows under water, is extremely uncertain ; and, as Nees von P^senbeck, who has reproduced Sciirank's figures, says ex- pressly, requires fresh observations.! There was some jJeculiar arrangement of the spores within the vesicles, but unfortunately tlie most perfect sketch of the appearance has been mislaid, and, indeed, tlie different stages of growth succeeded each other so rapidly, that it was not sufficiently observed. Tliis was the more to be regretted, as it miglit have thrown some light upon pecu- liar arrangements in otiier moulds, especially in Stilhum pili- forme,\ Corda, where the spores are disposed somewhat in tlie fashion of the cells in the globules of Chara and Nitella. It must be remembered tliat there is good reason to believe with Corda that each sterigraa has the power of producing a succes- sion of spores, which, as they are thrust off by the growth of the new spore, are deposited within tlie vesicle according to mecha- nical laws. The specimen furnished no information as to the development of the fallen spores. It appears, then, that the mildew in the instance under con- sideration was due to the presence of a most minute microscopic mould, bearing about the same relation in point of size to the larger species, that Salix herhacea does to well-grown trees of Salix alba. The mould was in every part of the plant con- centrated at numberless points into the form of a Sclerotium, tlius confirming directly the views of Leveille respecting that sup- posed genus. It was observed above that no form of fructifica- * I know of no mould so minute except the production described by Niigeli under the generic name of Schinzia penicillata as fructifying in the cells of the roots of an Iris. Linna?a, vol. xvi. p. 278, tab. xi. fig. 2-10. f Nees von Esenbeck, Syst. d. Pilz. p. 82. X Corda, Ic. Fung., Fasc. III. tab. 2, fig. 41. ON A TECULIAE X'ORM OF MILDEW IN ONIONS 95 tion was visible in the portion of tlie mycelium which was situated Avithin the drop of water. That moulds when growing in water not only present great differences as to their mycelium, but even as to fructification, appears from the various observations M'hicli refer such states to Algoe, or to distinct genera of mucedines and mucorini. Aelilya iwolifera, respecting which linger* has made such curious observations, is probably a mere anamorphosis of some" mould, or if not so, it is at least an aquatic species, and so far anomalous, though scarcely more so than the Algerian Sphcsria Posidonice, Montagne and Durieu, which grows on the shoots of Posidoiiia when yet remaining on their marine bed, and constantly covered by the sea, and is a very highly de- veloped species. A curious observation was made in the autumn of 1846 by Mr. Hoffinan on a mycelium with which the interior of a decay- ing pear was impregnated. It should be mentioned first, that during that autumn the leaves of many Apple and Pear trees at Margate were covered with a white flocculent fungus, which was, however, never seen in fruit. All the fruit of these parti- cular trees rotted ; and though no fungus appeared externally, the cells of the fruit exhibited very clearly a jointed mycelium. An extremely minute portion of this, cleared as much as pos- sible from the cellular substance of the matrix, was subjected to precisel)' the same treatment as that observed in the ex- amination of the onion mildew. It shortly began to grow and spread in all directions, but so long as it was confined to the fluid no normal fructification appeared ; the articulations of the threads, however, contained oblong-elliptic grains, which were soon dispersed in the fluid, after the fashion of the reproductive bodies in Bryopsis and some Confervce. They possessed at first a slight molecular motion, which soon subsided ; and M'hen they became stationary they germinated, and gave rise to jointed threads, similar to those of the parent mycelium. As soon, however, as the flocci penetrated into the surrounding air, a very different sort of fi-uctification appeared, by which the mould was easily recognised as Penicilliuvi can- didum, Grev. The true spores were of the same form and size as those which had been developed M'ithin the threads in water, and it should be observed that no external fruit had ap- peared when tlie grains of the joints were first dispersed, or even till after tliey had germinated. Precisely the same results were exhibited in a second experiment. It was found afterwards that, even in situ, as might be expected from the abundant moisture of the decayed fruit, the reproductive granules were produced * Limiffia, vol. xvii. p. 129. 96 ON A PECULIAR FORM OF MILDEW IX ONIONS. within the threads and dispersed in the fruit, thus extensively and rapidly propagating the disease. There is no evidence, indeed, to show what was the nature of the mould on the leaves, or whether it was identical with that produced by the mycelium ; but the fact is interesting, as suggesting furtlier observation, and as tending to the establishment of the truth which is so reluc- tantly admitted by many, that fungi are capable of producing extensive disease as well in vegetable as in animal tissues. The observation is further important, as showing one way m which fungi may be extensively propagated in the tissue of phje- nogamous plants, when once the mycelium of a mould has been established, for the reproductive bodies produced within the threads, where there was no cavity filled with air proper for the development of the true fruit, miglit be carried by the means of the intercellular passages to any part of the plant ; and it does not follow that these secondary reproductive bodies should always be of the same size as the spores. That disease is propagated from one plant to another appears very clear from the two following observations, which I shall give nearly in Mr. Hoffman's own words. A turnip was ob- served, whose leaves were covered with a species of Okhum. A fine half-grown turnip in perfect health happened to be near it, and pushed imprudently one of its leaves in contact with the sickly plant. When first observed, a narrow white velvety bor- der was visible on the edge of the healthy leaf, just where it touched the diseased one. Tlie parasite spread from this border over the whole leaf in a few days, and the poor young turnip fell a sacrifice to bad company, for both decayed. Tiie second observation was connected with the grape mildew, which I have described in the Gardener's Chronicle, 1847. Some healthy jjlants of Chrysanthemum Indicum were placed under the vines infested with Oidium Tuckeri, and in a short time every plant was covered with the same fungus. This suggested further experiment. Some self-sown potato plants, of an early variety, entirely free from Botrytis, were potted off, and placed where the Chrysanthemum became diseased. All throve ad- mirably, without exliibiting any appearance of mildew. The grape mould had no eft'ect upoJi them. But when the leaves of a potato infected with Botrytis were shaken over one particular plant, in a few days it was mildewed, the plant became sickly, and eventually died. The bearing of all these facts on the possibility of the exten- sive destruction of plants by parasitic moulds is evident, and sug- gests the wisdom of extensive series of well-conducted experi- ments. These, if made without prejudice, or at least with perfect impartiality, would, I am convinced, lead to most important results, which would amply repay the pains bestowed upou them. ON A PECULIAK FOllM OF MILDEW IN ONIONS. 97 VOL. III. 98 ON A PECULIAR FORM OF MILDEW IN ONIONS. Attention should be directed first to the phenomena of growth and propagation, and then to the discovery of some means of prevention or of cure. I have said before that onion mildew does not in my opinion arise from bad cultivation, or from peculiarities of soil, though it may be aggravated by either. The probability is that the remedy must be directed to the seeds. It is, however, possible that all our pains may in the end be baffled by these minute plagues. " Few things are more wonderful or more humiliating to man than his powerlessness in contending against God's army of small things, insects and fungi : he can subdue the monster of the sea, and tlie wild beast of the forest, but is conquered in his turn by a tiny fly or a few grains of dust." Note. — The species of Mucor may be thus characterized : — Mucor subtilissimtis, n. sp. ; mycelio repeiite ; floccis fertilibus ramosis, ramis brevibus patentibus spovangio omnino microscopico terminatis ; vesi- culis demum evauidis : sporis oblongo-ellipticis.. Fig. 1. Mycelium of Mucor subtilissimus highly maguified. A single branchlet has pushed into the air, and has produced a sporangium. Fig. 2. Slice from the stem of a diseased onion sending otf abundant fructifying shoots, magnified to the same degree as the last. Fig. 3. A portion more highly maguified, showing the various states of fructification. Fig. 4. Transverse section of the Sclerotium, showing the dark outer coat of two contiguous masses, and the mycelium between them. The lighter portion represents the tissue of the interior of one of the masses. Fig. 5. Slice from surface of Sclerotium more highly magnified, with the mycelium springing from it. a. Mycelium springing from substance of Sclerotium. Fig. 6. Penicillium candidum, exhibiting external aud internal fruit. TEMPERATURE OF THE EARTH IN THE SOCIETY'S GARDEN. 99 XVI. — Observations made with reference to the Temperature of the Earth iti the Garden of the Horticultural Society at Chiswick. By Robert Thompson. Whilst attention has been directed for many years to the tem- perature of the air, that of the earth has been comparatively but little noticed, either at home or abroad. That it is necessary to understand the one as well as the other will, I presume, be rea- dily admitted ; for the fitness of soils to produce certain crops frequently depends on the condition of the subsoil as regards temperature. What constitutes a good condition or a bad con- dition in this respect cannot be exactly known until determined by thermometrical experiments. In a favourable soil and cli- mate, vegetation may be seen thriving well ; in apparently similar circumstances it often thrives badly : tlie cause is gene- rally found to be owing to a cold subsoil. This on a large scale cannot be heated artificially ; but in many cases that which occasioned the coldness can be removed. When the temperature of the soil does not rise in due proportion with that of the air in summer, it is generally owing to the presence of spring w ater ; hence the vast improvement consequent on its removal by drain- age. This is one mode by wliich the temperature of the soil can be elevated in the growing season, an etfect which is highly deserving of particular investigation by means of ground ther- mometers. The following abstract is drawn up from observations made daily in the garden of the Society, with apparatus wliich it will be proper in the first place to describe. Two thermometers were constructed by Mr. Newman, the tube of the one being a foot in length below the commencement of tlie scale, and the other two feet. Both extended a foot above ground when their bulbs were respectively one foot and two feet below the surface. The stems or tubes of the thermometers were enclosed as far as they extended below ground in copper tubes about f inch in diameter. To the tops of these the scale was joined by copper straps, continued from the tubes, and along the back of the piece of boxwood on which the scales corre- sponding to each thermometer were engraved ; the copper form- ing the protecting tubes nowhere touched the thermometers. The cavity between the stem and tube was filled up with finely- powdered charcoal, rendering it as compact as possible by pour- ing in water occasionally during the process of filling : an incli at top was filled in with clayey loam. The lower extremities of the copper tubes terminated in a point, a little above which, opposite to the bulbs, openings were cut in order that the soil might get in contact with the bulbs. Holes were made in the H 2 100 TEMPEPvATUKE OF THE EARTH IN ground to admit of the lubes being adjusted to the intended depth, 1 and 2 feet below the surface; and when so adjusted, the earth was filled in, and consolidated by watering. The situation in which these thermometers were placed was the lawn in the Arboretum, open to the sun, and unsheltered from rain. The grass was kept short, but allowed to grow closely round the ground thermometers. The thermometers in- dicating the maximum and minimum temperatures in the shade, and which afforded the comparative data in the following tables, were in the same compartment with the ground thermometers and others indicating the degrees of sun-heat and radiation. The whole were enclosed by a M'ire guard. The nature of the soil in which the ground thermometers were insei'ted is a blackish loam, resting on a stratum of yellow loam. The latter is pierced, however, by the common earthworm, in a perpendicular direction, through to the gravel ; and by this means a good drainajT^e has been effected, and is still maintained. 1837. Day of tlie Montli. Temperature OF THE Earth. l^ay of the Month. Temperature OF THE AlK. Day of the Month. Monthly Mean Tempe- rature of the Air. 1 Foot. 2 Feet. Day. Night. „• (Max. 25"- 65- 62°- 22"'' 81 59- 13"- g<^Min. 3rd 54- 53- g.h 56- 35 3rd 60-08 >-i [Mean — 60-11 57-91 72-50 47 67 — ^ [Max. 28"- 69- 66- 27"- 85- 60 25"- ghlin. 2nd 62- 62- pt 66- 37 1*' 63-16 •-: (Mean 65-09 63-29 — 75-74 50 •57 — . [Max. 20'^ 68- 65- 17"- 87- 63 29nd g<^Min. 3P' 58- 59-50 29"- 59- 39 26"' 62-53 < (Mean — 63-80 62-97 — 74-03 51 04 — ^ [Max. 20"- 62- 60- 19"- 72- 60 17"' S Min. 28"- 54- 56- 27"- 60- 35 26"- 55-68 02 [Mean — 57-50 58-23 — 65-15 46 22 — . [Max. 4th 59-5 58- 2nd 73- 54 3rd o { Min. 29ih 47- 50- 28'*- 49- 27 25"- 50-00 <^ (Mean — 53-01 54-19 — 60-63 39 36 — ^ [Max. 2nd 48- 50- P' 55- 45 10"- o <^ Min. '^ (Mean 30'h 40- 44. g.h 33 22 8"- 40-22 — 43-23 46-01 -— 47-89 32 55 — . [Max. 26"- 46- 46- 19"- 55- 48 24"- K { Min. 16'" 38- 41- ^th 34- 24 3rd 41-38 ^ [Mean — 42-16 43-35 46-61 36-14 — THE SOCIETY'S GARDEN AT CHI3WICK. 101 TEjrPERATURE Temperature Monthly Day OF THE Earth. Day OF the AiR. Day Mean 1090 of" of of Tempe- J owro> the the the rature of Month. 1 Foot. 2 Feet. Month. Day. Night. Month. the A lir. , [Max, p. 46- 46- 29'" 49- 41- 2nd < Min. 20"' 33 35- 20'" 11- -4 k 19'" 27 • 79 t-J [Mean — 36- 19 39- 03 — 32 87 22- 72 — n [Max. 28'" 38- 37- 50 28'" 53- 40 • 24'" Min. gth 32 5 35- 15'" 32- 14^ 12'" 33- 76 f^ [Mean — 33 98 35- 66 — 39- 89 27- 64 — (6 [Max. 30'" 46 44. 29'" 62- 46 • 29'" 4 [Max. 12'" 49 47- 11'" 69- 49 6'" 5 Min. 3rd 42 43- pt 45 16^ pt 44 • 06 << [Mean — 44 90 44. 85 — 53 33 34- 80 — pH [Max. aiin. 3P' 57 53- 50 gth 78 50 • pt < g pt 46 45- 23^'' 48- 26- 15'" 52 27 [Mean — 52 11 50- 72 — 64 19 40 35 — M [Max. 25'" 64 5 60- 5 24'" 83 58' 16'" t3 Min. 10'" 56 55- Yth 64 35- gth 59 89 »-: [Mean — 59 70 57 40 — 70 83 48 96 — tH* Max. 12'" 68 65 50 13'" 84 60 10'" 1^ Min. 27'" 61 61 22"'^ 64 40 24'" 62 78 1-5 [Mean — 64 53 62 82 — 74 48 51 09 — o [Max. 14'" 66 63 50 28'" 82 61 12'" p <1 Min. 26'" 61 60 22'"' 66 38 30'" 61 58 [Mean — 63 37 62 00 — 72 42 50 74 — f^" [Max. 2nd 63 62 4th 76 56 14'" b H Min. 28'" 54 50 56 8'" 56 34 10'" 56 16 CC [Mean — 58 •55 59 08 — 67 •06 45 •26 — O [Max. pt 56 •50 56 •50 20'" 66 54 21" ]Min. 14'" 49 51 13'" 44 26 14'" 50 •48 [Mean — 52 53 53 35 — 57 •58 43 •38 — > [Max. pt 49 51 •Tth 61 49 2P' o hiin. 27'" 38 42 25'" 39 23 24'" 42 ■49 [Mean — 44 •08 46 40 — 48 •90 36 •09 — P [Max. 2nd '45 46 pt 56 48 P' Jlh 38- 41 3rd 36 24- gth 44-44 [Mean — 44 43 44 36 — 52 63 36 26 — (Max. 3P' 57 50 55 pt 73 54 20'" Miji. 16* 48 50 50 14* 52 • 28 15* 52-45 ^ Mean — 53 71 52 56 — 64 48 40 42 — w [Max. 21^' 66 62 18* 84 59 20'" ^ p Min. grd 56 56 29* 51 40 30'" 60-16 )-3 (.Mean — 61 03 59 03 — 69 63 50 70 — >H (Max. ^th 66 62 50 13* 81 61 17* Min. pt 58 58 27* 62 45 pt 61-74 •-5 (Mean 62 •32 61 •12 — 70 58 52 90 — o (Max. 4'"' 67 63 •50 3rd 85 56 28* < ^Min. 22"^ 59 60 19* 61 37 20'" 61-41 [Mean -- 63 •00 62 •00 — 72 25 50 58 — Eh [Max. 11* 63 61 •50 10* 78 61 8* (^ fd iMin. 30*; 55 57 17* 62 36 28* 57-71 O} [Mean — 58 •96 59 -30 — 67 36 48 06 — (Max. hiin. 5* 57 57 •50 11* 71 56 8* 3P' 46 49 3P' 42 35 19* 50-88 O JMean — 53 •24 54 •42 — 58 •58 43 19 — • o [Max. 18* 52 51 •50 17* 57 50 9* . Min. 28* 43 46 27* 36 21 26* 45-56 ^ Mean — 48 •06 49 •23 — 51 -06 40 -06 — [Max. 24* 48 -50 47 23'" 57 48 23''' 14 <^Min. 9* 39 43 8'" 35 21 29* 40-30 fi [Mean — - 42-84 44-51 — 45-35 35-25 — THE SOCIETY'S GARDEN AT CHISWICK. 103 Temperature Temperature 1840. Ilav of the Month. OF THE Earth. Day of the Month. OF the Air. Day of the Month. Mean Tempe- rature of the Air. 1 Foot. 2 Feet. Day. Night. . (Max. 17'" 43-50 44. •tUi 53°- 45- 11'" g Min. 25"^ 36- 39- 20'" 33- 24- OQnd 39-30 ^ [Mean — 40-57 41-86 44-96 33-65 — « [Max. -j [Mean — 62-03 60-40 — - 71-96 49-93 In July, 1840, the ground thermometers were employed for the purpose of experiments which were being made respecting the soil in the beil of the great conservatory. In the autumn of 1843, after having been several months replaced in the arbore- tum, they were accidentally broken, and the observations were interrupted till the commencement of 1844. 1S43. Day of the Month. Temperature OF the Earth. Day of the Month. Temperature OF the Air. Dav of tlie Month. Monthly Mean Tempe- rature of the Air. 1 Foot. 2 Feet. Day. Night. p4 (Max. gA (Max. 27'" 54 50 53 9.1, 73 48 15'" Min. 8'" 46 46 rth 58 25 ^th 51 -06 H (Max. 25'" 69 65 50 25'" 92 62 25'" 5 J3 Min. 5'" 61 61 6'" 65 42 16'" 64-30 »-s [Mean — 63 61 62 48 — 76 • 42 52 19 — (Max. P' 62 63 3P' 80 60 19'" Min. 16'" 58 59 13'" 65 38 23^" 59-69 < [Mean — 60 12 60 58 — 71 68 47 71 — w (Max. 8'" 63 62 P' 84 61 • 3rd Min. 30'" 52- 56 29'" 59 30- 29'" 58^91 [Mean — 59 16 59 76 — 70 50 47 33 — (Max. 5'" 57- 57 3rd 71 • 55 12'" H Cj Min. 30'" 47- 49 28'" 47 29 27'" 5017 O [Mean — 51- 44 53- 31 — 60 09 40 • 26 — iMax. 19'" 49- 50 50 • 16'" 60- 51 18'" Min. 28'" 41- 44- 30'" 40- 22' 26'" 43^58 ;^ [Mean — 46 45 45- 85 — 50 53 36 • 63 — [Max. P' 41- 44- 29'" 49 • 40 • 18'" S Min. 24'" 35- 38 • 6'" 30- 14- 5'" 33 27 Q [Mean 36- 95 39 • 79 — 37 • 64 28 • 90 — THE SOCIETY'S GARDEN AT CHISWICK. 105 1845. Day of the Month. Temperature OF THE Earth. Day of the Month. Temperature OF THE Air. Day the Month. Montlily Mean Tempe- 1 Foot. 2 Feet. Day. Night. rature of the Air. . [Max. IS"- 42- 42-50 6'" 54- 44 ir" ^'hlin. 31" 36 39- 30'" 34 19 28'" 38-69 ^ [Mean 39 90 40-93 — 45 90 31 -48 — . [Max. 28* 39 •50' 39- 26'" 52 37 25'" w^^Min. 2ist 34 36- 12'" 32 -^3 11'" 33-07 ^ (Mean — 35 •64 37-57 — 41 •43 24 •71 — p: [Max. 28"' 44 ■50 43- 3P' 63 47 27'" ^piin. ^ (.Mean 18'" 34 36- 13'" 25 13 13'" 38-49 — 37 79 38-37 — 45 -51 31 48 — k4 [Max. 30'" 52 50- 23"' 72 52 25'" g <^ Min. 12'" 42 43- 9th 47 22 gth 48 41 ; low as 1000 feet (Tolmezzo). It is found on the Euganean hills (Rua, 1200 feet), * Webb has marked it with a ? as growing near Cadiz. 122 THE CONIFEROUS PLANTS OF ITALY. but nowhere on the whole chain of the Apennines. This tree is also verj'^ common in Scandinavia, especially to tlie east of the mountains, where it is found as far as 67" of latitude in the Sar- matian and German plains, and also on the mountains surround- ing the Alps to the north and to the east, from the Vosges to the Carpathians. According to Benthani, it occurs on the Pyrenees ; but it does not grow even on the mountains in the coimtries sur- rounding tlie Mediterranean. The tree found in the north of Asia, which is somewhat analogous to Abies excelsa, is, accord- ing to Ledebour and Link, a different species (^Picea ohovata). 2. Abies pectinata. D. C. The Silver Fir is found over all the Alps from east to west (Baldo, Dorso d'Abramo, Val Bregaglia, Spliigen, and in the Alps of Piedmont [Allioni]). It is principally found at a height of from 2000 to 4000 feet, but it occurs as low as 1000 and as high as 4500 feet. Like the last species, it is found on the Eu- ganeans (llua). It grows on the whole chain of the Apennines from north to south (Monte Scavone [Flor. Tic. ii. 195], Cimone, Alpi Apuane, Falterona, Camaldoli, La Vernia, Montaniata [Savi, Alb. di Tosc. 1. 156]; Lionessa, Monte di Ascoli, Gransasso, Monte Vergine [Tenore, Sylloge, 477] ; Monte Pollino, La Sila [Tenore, Geogr. Phys., 76], Aspromonte). The height at which this tree is found varies in the north of this chain from 1000 to 4200 feet, and in the south from 2000 to 5500 feet (Monte Pollino). From a communication made by Tineo, it is also found on the Madonia in Sicily, Tlie Silver Fir occurs on the northern slope of the Alps, and on the mountains of the middle of Europe ; but it is not found in the Sarmatian plains nor on the mountains of the north of Europe. Its northern limit appears to be 57° lat. ; it is only planted in the Harz. It is found on the Pyrenees (Bentham), but most probably on no other mountains of Spain. This tree is common on the high mountains of Greece (Sibthorp), and occupies a whole region, according to Chaubard, on Taygetus. The Silver Fir of the north of Asia is another species, Abies sibirica (Ledebour), as is perhaps the Caucasian species. III.— LAPvIX. 1. Larix europ^a. Nouveau Duhamel. The Larch is spread over, and forms forests in, the upper re- gions of the Alps from east to west (Tagliamento, Piave, Baldo, Dorso d'Abramo, Stilfserjoch, Legnone, Val Bregaglia, Malog- gia, Spliigen, Simplon, Mont-Cenis, Col de Tende). Its proper THE CONIFEROUS PLANTS OF ITALY. 123 region is at a height of from 3000 to 6500 feet ; it sometimes occurs as high as 7000 feet, but it is then dwarf, and occasion- ally as low as 2000 or even 1500 feet (near La Piave). It is not found anywhere on the Apennines. It is less common on the northern than on the southern slope of the Alps, It is found in the Carpathian mountains and in the Sarmatian plains ; but it does not exist in the German plain, nor in the mountains of Scandinavia, nor in tlie Pyrenees ; it is equally wanting in Greece and in the Iberian peninsula. The Siberian larch is, according to Ledebour, another species (Larix sibirica). IV.-CUPRESSUS. 1. CuPRESsus SEMPERviRENS. Linn. The Cypress is found in gardens, or cemeteries, or avenues throughout the whole of Italy, from the foot of the Alps to Ca- labria, as well as in Sicily ; it is here and there found wild. Tlie upper mean height at which it grows is about 2000 or 2500 feet. It is very common in the other countries surrounding the Me- diterranean, Greece, Barbary, Africa, &c. It is supposed to be really wild in the Grecian Archipelago and in Asia Minor. v.— JUNIPERUS. 1. JUNIPERUS COMMUNIS. Linn. This species occurs very generally on the Alps from east to west, from the foot to a height oi" 5000 feet, where it is replaced by the following species, which'is very closely allied to it (Karsh, Tagliamento, Baldo, Legnone, Bregaglia, Spliigen, Mont-Cenis). It is also very common in the plain of the Po (Pianura del Ca- vallino and the Euganeans), on the Apennines, at about the same height as on the Alps (La Becchetta, Borghetto, Ponte- moli, Cimone, Pianoro, Pietramala, Alpi Apuane, Prato, Monte Pisano, La Vernia, Montamiata, Terni, Spoleto, Rieti, Lugnano, Aquasanta, Ascoli), on the hills and plains near the coast to the 40th degree of latitude (Genoa, Viareggio, Marchia di Pisa, Monte Limoiie, Montenero, Ostia, Monte Mario) ; it is seldom to be met with more to the south, at least in the plains. It grows in a dry sandy soil, on heaths and in woods. It occurs in the whole of the north of Europe as far as Lap- land. It is also found in the Pyrenees, according to Bentham, in Spain and in Greece, but, as it seems, only on the mountains, and, lastly, on the Caucasus. According to Pursh and Hooker, it is also found in Canada, in Newfoundland, near Lake Huron, and on the western coast of North America as far as Sitcha ; 124 THE CONIFEROUS PLANTS OF ITALY. according to Captain Webb, even to Nepal and Bootan ; but tliis last assertion requires to be confirmed. 2. JuNiPERUs NANA. Linn. Tiiis species is found on the Alps, in the sub- Alpine and Al- pine regions, seldom below 5000 or above 7500 feet (Baldo, Stilfserjoch, Legnone, Maloggia, Alpe di Lago, Simplon, Mont- Cenis, Col de Tende), on the Apuan Apennines, according to specimens communicated by the younger Bertoloni, on Mount Velino, and perhaps also on the other summits of the Apen- nines, which are sufficiently high. To the north of the Alps it occurs in the Carpathian moun- tains (Wahlenberg), in Lapland as far as the most northern re- gions (Wahlenberg), on the Altai" mountains (Ledebour), in Greenland (F. Vahl), and the most northern countries of North America (Hooker). According to Webb, it is also met with on the high mountains of Portugal. 3. JUNIPERUS HEMISPHiERICA. Presl. In the upper, barren region of Mount Etna there is found a low, spreading species of juniper, which, from its locality, I regard as the J. hemisphserica of Presl., although I have never found it in fructification. Its region, according to my own observations, agrees with that assigned to it by Philippi and Carlo Gemellaro, and may be fixed between 5000 and 7000 feet. Tenore says that it was found by Gussone on the Aspromonte, and on several of the mountains of Calabria. I found on the subalpine regions of Mounts Sibilla, Amaro, and Gransasso, a juniper bush very much like that from Etna, having flattened berries. I am not quite certain, however, that it is not a mountain variety of Juniperus communis. Juniperus hemisphserica has not hitherto been met with out of Italy. 4. Juniperus Oxycedrus. This species is quite different from J. macrocarpa, with which it is often confounded. I found it on the Apennines,, at a height of from 1000 to 3000 feet (between Otricoli and Narni, between Norcia and Castelluccio, on Mount Gargano). According to Tenore, it also grows on Mount Salviano. It is most probably the same plant found by Orlandini at Gabbredo di Monte Auto e dei Monti-Rognosi. As this species is often confounded with the next, it is diffi- cult to state what are its real localities out of Italy. I take the " Cade " of the south of France to be J. Oxycedrus, as also the species which according to Sibthorp is common in Greece and the THE CONIFEROUS PLANTS OF ITALY. 125 Archipelago, especially on Mount Helicon and in Dalmatia. It probably exists also in the Spanish peninsula. 5. JUNIPERUS MACROCARPA. Sibth. This species is found on the sandy coasts and rocks of the Mediterranean (Marchia di Pisa, Montenero, Ostia, Lago di Licola, Lago di Patria, Cuma) and the Adriatic (in the Pouilla, Tenore) — and in Sicily, according to specimens communicated by Tineo. It occurs in Greece (Sibthorp), near Cadiz, in Spain (Webb), and I have seen a specimen of it from Barbary named as Oxyce- drus in the herbarium of Desfontaines. This species is probably pread over all the coasts of the Mediterranean. 6. JuNiTERus Sabina. Linn. The Savin is found in the Alps (Pfunds, the mountains of Lombardy, according to specimens received from Odescalchi) and in the Apennines (Castelluccio, Gransasso, Majella^. Some Italian botanists say that it grows on rocks near the sea ; but I suspect that they have confounded it with J. phoenicea. Allioni, Pollini, Brocchi, and Tenore say that it is a mountain plant, and my own experience confirms this statement. According to Bentham, it grows in the Pyrenees ; it also occurs in Greece (Sibthorp and Chaubard) ; and in the Spanish Peninsula, always as a mountain plant (Webb). It is found on the northern and western slope of the Alps, on the Altai (Lede- bour), and on the Caucasus (Meyer). Hooker says it is also found in Canada as far as the Saskatchawan, near Lake Huron, and in the Rocky Mountains, 7. JuNiPERUS PHCENICEA.* Nouveau Duhamel. Is found on the rocks on the shores of the Mediterranean, from Nice and Oneilli to Calabria, and in Sicily ; and also along the Ionian Sea and the Adriatic Gulph, from Tarentum and Gallipoli to Cherso (Nice, according to Allioni ; Montenero, Terracina, Castel Fusano, Gargano.) Near Lecce, Taranto, Gallipoli (Tenore and Gussone) ; at Cherso (Koch). From Cas- tellamare, in Sicily, according to specimens received from Gus- sone. It is not found beyond the lower heights near the sea. It is generally spread around tlie Mediterranean, in Greece, and its Archipelago (Sibthorp, Chaubard), probably also in the Levant, on the table-land of Barca (Visiani), in Barbary (Des- fontaines), and on the French coast of the Mediterranean (De Candolle and Loiseleur.) * I look upon J. Lycia as synonymous with J. Phoenicea. 126 THE CONIFEROUS PLANTS OF ITALY. VI.-TAXUS. 1. Taxus baccata. Linn. The yew is occasionally found on the Alps (Le^none, Baldo according to Pollini ; the mountains of Piedmont — Allioni), and on the Apennines (Cima dei monti, Montamiata — Santi). Su- biaco (Sebastiani and Mauri) ; Monte Acuto (Orsini) ; Mount Gargano (della Torre and Giordano) ; Matese (according to Te- nore) ; it is probably not wild in the plains. Its lower limits are 1000 feet on the Alps, and 2000 feet on the Central Apennines; its upper limit reaches the region of the Conifers and that of the Ash in the Apennines. It is found on the western and northern slopes of the Alps, in the mountains of Central Europe, in Scotland, and in the Scan- dinavian Peninsula. Its nortliern limit is 61° in Scandinavia CGefle, Bergen), and 58' in Scotland. It also occurs in the Pyrenees, in Spain (Ortega), and in Greece, as a mountain plant, as well as on the Caucasus. According to Hooker, it grows near Lake Huron and in other places ; by others, how- ever, the species found there is considered distinct (Taxus ame- ricana). From the preceding abstract it appears that ten Conifers (viz. Pinus sylvestris, Pumilio, Cemhra ; Abies excelsa, pectinata; Larix europcBa ; Juniperus communis, nana, Sabina ; Taxus baccata) are found on the Alps, which may therefore, with re- spect to these plants, be taken to represent all Europe. With regard to the heights at which these species are found, we may class them thus : — • To the Alpine region belong Juniperus nana and Pinus Pu- milio. To the region of the Conifers, Pinus Cembra, Larix europcp.a, Abies excelsa : tlie two latter however are found at a less elevation. To the region of the Beech and the Oak belong Pifius sylvestris, Taxus baccata, Juniperus communis, Abies pectinata and Juniperus Sabina. Here and there they descend to the region of the Chesnut-tree. Juniperus communis is even found in the plain of the Po. The north of Europe possesses only six wild Conifers, of which four are found in Great Britain, viz. Pinus sylvestris, Taxus baccata, Juniperus communis and nana; Scandinavia furnishes in addition to these Abies excelsa; the sixth, Larix europcea, is found in the northern plain of European Russia. To these six Conifers we must add Abies pectinata and Juni- perus Sabina from the mountains of Central Europe, and Pinus THE CONIFEROUS PLANTS OF ITAL^i. 127 Pumilio and Cembra from the Riesengebirge and Carpathian mountains. We see then that on the Alps are found all the Conifers of nortliern and Central Europe without any exception. This fact must be of importance with respect to the history of plants, althougli we cannot prove that all these Conifers have certainly descended from the Alps. The Alps, it seems, possess more species than the northern parts of Europe. In the region of the Conifers these species play the same part as in Scandinavia, the north of Russia, the northern plain of Europe, and the mountains of Central Europe. The forests of Conifers are composed of a larger number of indivi- duals, and occupy a much greater extent of country than those of the Alps. In the north, all the Conifers, with the single excep- tion of Juniperus nana, descend into the plains ; the Conifers on the northern slope of the Alps do the same, except the Alpine species Juniperus nana, Pinus Pumilio, and those which, though belonging to the region of the Conifers, approach the Alpine region, as, for instance, Larix europcea and Pinus Cem- bra. On this side they appear not only in the valleys and on the terraces, but at the foot of the mountains ; but on the southern slope, Juniperus communis is the only Conifer inhabit- ing the plains of Lombardy. The Alps and Pyrenees have in common Pinus sylvestris, Abies excelsa, pectinata, Juniperus communis and Sabina, and Taxus baccata ; perhaps also, but apparently not, Pinus Cem- bra and Larix europcea, which are eastern forms. The Pyrenees do not possess solely any one species, unless Pinus uncinata is looked upon as a distinct species. Among the species of the north of Europe, Larix europcea and Abies excelsa have their southern limit on the south slope of the Alps. The genus Larix stops there also, but the genus Abies is preserved by other species. Pinus sylvestris has, as a general rule, the same limit, but it may be found more to the south ; other species, however, then take its place, so that the genus is preserved. Taxus baccata, Juniperus nana and com- 7nunis, are found further to the south, the two former being mountain plants and inhabiting a colder climate. Among the Conifers, the northern limit of which is in the mountains of Central Europe, Abies pectinata and Juniperus Sabina extend also more to the south, but always as mountain plants. Pinus Cembra is not found further south. P. Pumilio, or a form analogous to it, reappears on the Apennines under similar cir- cumstances as regards climate. The great plain of the Po possesses no Conifers but Juni- perus communis, which occurs on the heaths and sandy places, 128 THE CONIFEROUS PLANTS OF ITALY. and the southern forms, Pinus Pinea and Cupressus sempervi- rens, which are found here cultivated in gardens. Two forms of Abies are found on the Euganean mountains, which rise abruptly from the plain. With the Apennines commences the Flora of the Mediterra- nean. If we first confine our attention to the plains, valleys, and hills which are in the evergreen region (jegio sempervirens), we have three species of Pines, viz. P. Pinaster, Pinea, and Halepensis ; three Junipers, viz. J. plioenicea, macrocarpa, and comtnutiis ; and lastly, Cupressus sempervirens, which is not truly wild. Although the number of species is thus the same as that of northern Europe, yet fewer principal forms are met with ; and although we find here Pine woods and Juniper thickets, they cannot, as far as their importance is concerned, be com- pared for a moment with the northern species. Of the three species of Pine, P. Pinaster belongs to the southern and central parts of western Europe (west of France, Portugal, Spain). It is not found in Italy further south tlian 42 N. lat., and probably not to the east of the Apennines. The second species, P. Pinea, appears to be really wild in a little zone from east to west of Central Italy ; it is very generally cultivated throughout Italy, and in all the countries surrounding the Mediterranean. Tlie third species, P. halepensis, is very common on either side of the Apennines, and is one of the plants most generally met with round the Mediterranean. The two Junipers, viz. J. macro- carpa and plioenicea, are similarly distributed, and are very common : J. communis is found in tiie plain as far south as 40'. The region of the woods {Regio sylvatica) of the Apennines is principally occupied, in its lower part, by Chesnut-trees and deciduous-leaved Oaks, in its upper part by Beech ; some Coni- fers are also present, especially in the region of the Beech ; these Conifers are partly the same as those found on the Alps, viz. Abies pectinata, Taxus baccata, Juniperus communis and Sa- bina, and partly of new forms, viz. Pinus Laricio on Etna, in Calabria, and in the Abruzzi, and on some other mountains in the basin of the Mediterranean ; Pinus brutia, which, according to our present knowledge, is indigenous to Calabria, and Ju- niperus Oxycedrus, which appears to extend from the east to the west of Italy. There is but a small number of the mountains of the Apen- nines which enter the sub- Alpine region ; but when this is the case as at Majella, we find a species of prostrate Pine analogous to P. Pumilio, viz. P. magellensis. Juniperus nana is found on the northern Apennines, on Mount Velino, and perhaps in other places : lastly, Juniperus hemisphcerica grows on Mount THE COXIFEROrs PLANTS OF ITALY. 129 Etna, on the mountains of Calabria, and perhaps on the higliest points of the Abruzzi. If we consider Italy south of the Po as a whole without dis- tinct regions, it will contain sixteen more species than are found on the Alps; this might have been expected, since this country- possesses the climates of the Mediterranean, central Europe, and the Polar regions, according to the height above the sea. Three forms are, liowever, missing; the Larix, Cembra, and Abies, properly so called (the Spruce Fir), but no distinct type makes its appearance except Cupressus, which is cultivated. Greece, and its islands, appear, as regards Conifers, to re- semble Italy in every essential point. In the plains we ha.\eJuni- perus macrocarpa and phanicea, Pinus Pinea and haleperisis, Cupressus sempervirens ; on the mountains, P. Laricio, Abies pectinata, Taxus baccata, Juniperus communis, Oxycedrus, Sabina , but we find peculiar to Greece Abies cephalonica and Apollinis, Link. Spain also resembles Italy in every'importaiit particular. These countries have in common Pinus Pinaster, halepensis, Juniperus macrocarpa, Cupressus sempervirens, m the plains ; and Taxus baccata, Pinus Laricio, Juniperus Sabi- na, commufiis, and nana, on the mountains. At a height of from 3500 to 6000 feet on the mountains of the south of Spain there is found, according to Boissier, Abies Pinsapo, which does not occur in Italy. The northern coast of Africa, and particularly the Atlas and the table-land of Barca, furnish a part of the Italian forms, viz. Pinus Pinea, halepensis, Cupressus sempervirens, Juniperus phcenicea, and macrocarpa, and in addition to these quite a new form, Callitris quadrivalvis. The Conifers are not found south of the Atlas. In the Canary Islands we have a species of Pine, viz. P. canariensis, and two species of Juniper, which are also probably peculiar to these islands. The species in Syria and Asia Minor are the same as those found in Italy, at least those on the northern coast of Africa. On Lebanon the re- markable Cedar appears, which is most allied to the Larch among the northern forms. According to the authorities given above, North America possesses three Junipers that occur in Europe, viz. J. communis, nana, Sabina. As the two former are found in the extreme north of Europe, this fact confirms the striking similarity that exists between the Polar and sub-Polar regions of the two continents ; that Juniperus Sabina should be found in Xorth America is more strange, as it does not appear north of central Europe. Tlie North American Yew is considered by some as identical with, and by others as different from, the European species. The richness of North America in Conifers in the form VOL. TII. K 130 THE CONIFEROUS PLANTS OF ITALY. of Pines, Firs, and Larches is well known ; but all the other species, even those found most to the north, are different from those of Europe. History of the Conifers of Italy. Pinus Pinea was no doubt as common in the time of the Eomans as at present ; it was principally cultivated, and was called simply Piniis. 1. Pliny says that it is branching at its top, whilst Pinaster is so from the middle of its trunk upwards.* Ovid describes this tree as having erect foliage, or a bristling head.j 2. Pliny notices, as a remarkable circumstance, that this tree bears at the same time fruit about to ripen, others which will ripen the next year, and others, again, which will ripen the third year;| this is a property possessed by the Pine in question, but not by the other Italian species of the same genus. 3. The same author says it has a very large fruit, and it is in fact that whicli, among the Italian species, bears the largest cones. He says that the nuts are found in cavities, and are covered with a layer of rust, by which they are enabled to lie softly ; he states, moreover, that the seeds are eatable, which is only true of this species and of Pinus Cemhra of the A]ps.§ Apiciusalso talks of Pine Nuts {nuclei pinei) ; he mentions them as an ingredient in a very complicated dish;|| it is occasionally employed for culinary purposes at the present time. Pliny men- tions a variety with a thin shell,T[ which he calls the nut of Tarentum,^ — a variety still known and cultivated in the kingdom of Naples ; he talks of Pine nuts being preserved with honey (vide note, ante) ; they are at present kept in their cones. 4. The Pine was then as now cultivated in gardens, and planted near country houses, as we learn from the instructions given by Palladius, Varro, Columella, and Cato as to the time of planting and gathering the Pine nuts.** Virgtl calls the Pine * Plin. Hist. A'at. xvi. 17 — " Pinaster nihil aliud est quam Pinus syl- vestris, mira altitudine, et a medio ramosa, sicut Pinus in vertice." f Ovid, Metam. x. Iu3 — " Succincta comas, hirsutaque vertice Pinus." \ Plinij, xvi. 44 — "In maximk tamen admiratione Pinus est; habet fructum maturescentem ; habet proximo anno ad maturitatem venturum, ac deinde tertio." § Pliny, XV. 9 — " Grandissimus (fructus) pineis nucibus — intus exiles nucleos lacunatis includit toris, vestitos alia ferruginis tunica ; mira natura; cura moUiter semina coUocandi. In melle decoctos (nucleos) Tauriui aqui- celos vocant." II Apicius, "De Opsoniis etCondimentis,'' i. 33. ^ Pliny, XV. 9—" Harum genus alterum Tarentinse, digitis fragili puta- mine." ** Palladius, Novb. vii. 9-12 ; Feb. xxv. 33 ; Mart. x. 37. Varro, i. 45. Columella, v, 10, 14. Cato, xxviii. (Scriptores Kei RiisticEC, ed. Schneideri.) THE CONIFEROUS PLANTS OF ITALY. 131 the most beautiful ornament of gardens ; and Horace mentions a Pine tliat grew near his country house.* According to Varro, Pines served to mark the boundaries of estates. f 5. Lastly, in Pompeii and Herculaneum, we find figures of Pine cones in drawings of fruits and of culinary substances, and also on the arabesques : in the latter town kernels of charred Pines have been discovered. Thus by the word Pinus the Latin writers generally meant the Pinus Pmea ; but the word is also no doubt employed gene- tically, and applies to several species of Pines. Thus Pliny uses the word in the plural, when speaking of several species ;f Pinus is often mentioned as furnishing wood for building purposes, and especially for ship building, although the wood of P. Pinea is not good for such purposes. Used figuratively this word often signifies a ship.§ Pliny, having spoken of the Stone Pine, goes to the Pinaster ;|| he says it is nothing but a wild Pine, remai'kable for its great height, for the quantity of resin it yields, and for sending out branches from tlie middle of its trunk ; he adds that it also grows in plains. It might be at first supposed that this is nothing but the P. Pinaster of modern botanists ; P. Pinea and Pinaster grow together in Tuscany ; the first is called Pino domestico, and the last Pino selvatico ; the latter contains a large quantify of resin, has not the crown of the Stone Pine, and grows as well in the plains as on the low mountains. It is true that it does not reach further south than the 42nd degree of latitude ; but Pliny does not say expressly that it is found in the territories of Rome and of Naples ; it might besides have formerly extended more to the south ; for Santi, in his voyages, mentions a large Pine forest destroyed in the Siennese, that had extended from the Ombrone to Castiglione. Notwithstanding all this, there is a strong argu- ment against the identity of the Pinaster of the ancients with that of the moderns ; the former was said to be of extraordinary height, whilst the latter is almost as low as P. Pinea. For the same reason the Pinaster cannot be the common P. halepen- sis, which is still lower than P. Pinea. But this great height agrees with the P. Laricio, which in Corsica attains the enor- mous height of 140 or 150 feet, and in Sila, in Calabria, of 120 * Firgil, Buc. vii. 65 — " Fraxinus in sylvis pulcherrima, Pinus in hortis." Hor. ill. 22 — " Pinus imminens villae." f Varro, i. 15. j Pliny, xvi. 33 — Pinis. (« Virgil, Buc. Eel. iv. 38. II Pliny, xvi. 17 — " Pinaster nihil aliud est quam Pinus sylvestris mir^ altitudine, et a medio ramosa " — " Copiosorem dat hsec resinam " — " Gignitur in planis." K 2 132- THE CONIFEROUS PLANTS OF ITALY. to 130 feet; but the statement that the Pinaster grew in the plains does not apply so well, for P. Laricio is a mountain tree ; but Tenore says that it is occasionally found in the plains. By Pinaster Pliny probably meant both P. Pinaster and Laricio, which are not very unlike one another. Pliny's Pinaster can- not possibly be P. sylvestris, for the latter is found on the Alps only at a certain height above the sea, and rarely perhaps on the northern Apennines : it is not very high. After noticing the Pinaster, Pliny passes on to enumerate the Pines, and says* — Most people think that this tree {Pinaster) is the same as that found along the coasts of Italy, formerly called tibulus, but the latter is more slender, compact, and without knots; it is used in the construction of Liburnian ships, and has little resin. I cannot help thinking that this must refer to P- halepensis, for this tree is found along the coasts of Italy ; its trunk is more slender, its bark more united, and when older its branches form a tuft ; in this point the tree resembles P. Pinea more than do any of the others. Succincta is the very word used by Ovid when speaking of P. Pinea ; but the absence of resin renders the resemblance less complete. However this may be, P. halepensis was found in Italy, as is clearly proved by the paintings of this tree on the walls of Pompeii, After speaking of the two sorts of Fir and of the Larch, Pliny says : " The sixth sort (of Conifers) is the teda, properly so called, with a more abundant sap than the others ; but still less abundant and more liquid than that of the Spruce Fir, em- ployed as torches and lights in religious ceremonies."t The same author says in anotiier place that it is from the teda that pitch is obtained in Europe.^ Here he seems to me to speak of Pinus sylvestris ; for it is more especially from this tree that pitch is at present ol^tained :§ its resin is copious and liquid ; its branches are still very generally used as torches in the Alps. Other sorts of Pine, however, also furnish torches ; it is for this reason that Pliny says '' teda, properly sj^eaking," signifies torches in general. The ancients were accustomed, in order to keep their wines. •" Pliny, xvi. 17 — "Easdem arbores alio nomine esse per oram Italise, quos tibulos vocant plerique avbitrantur, sed graciles succinctioresque, et enodes, liburnicarum ad usus, poene sine resina." f Pliny, xvi. 19 — " Sextum genus est teda propria dicta, abundantior succo quam reliqua, parciore liquidioreque quam in picea flammis ac lumini sacrorum etiam grata." X Ibid. xvi. 21 — " Pix liquida in Europa e teda coquitur navalibus muni- endis multosque alios ad usus." § At tbe same place Pliny talks of pitch obtained from trees in Syria, and employed for embalming in Egypt ; this must be another species. THE COMFEKOUS PLANTS OF ITALY. 133 to add resin to, or to hang Pine cones in them, as is done to the present day : they probably employed several sorts of cones as we do. In this custom we see, perhaps, the origin of the cone that the ancients placed at the end of the Thyrsus ; this cone, from its round form, seems to belong to Pinus Pinea. From the same custom, no doubt, is derived the habit in Italy of placing a cone as a sign before houses where they sell wine. Ovid makes Ceres light branches of Pine in the fire of Etna when she was looking for her daughter Proserpine.* Etna'was then supposed to have Pine forests, and consequently the Gorsi- can Pine is here referred to. Firs are distinguished by Pliny, and otlier Roman writers, into two sorts, Abies and Picea ; two sorts are also found in Italy at the present day, viz. the Spruce Fir, which only occurs on the Alps, and the Silver Fir, properly so called, which is spread over the Alps and the entire chain of the Apennines. Linnseus took Abies for the Spruce Fir, Picea for the Silver Fir, and fixed on this supposition the botanical names : modern naturalists think that Linnaeus confounded the names of these two species, and has occasioned much confusion with respect to their sy- nonyms. From wliat Pliny says of the Picea liking mountains and slight frosts, and of the Abies that it grows on the highest parts of the mountains, as if it fled from the sea,! one might be dis- posed to think Linnaeus right ; for, although both are mountain trees, the Spruce Fir grows at a greater elevation than the Silver Fir. Let us first remark that we ought not to keep too close to the difference between in excelso montium and monies et frigora, in works written when the notions of botanical geography were so vague ; there are. moreover, several weighty reasons for translating Abies by Silver, and Picea by Spruce Fir. 1. The Spruce Fir is in Italian Pezzo, and the Silver Fir Abeto. In Greece, too, the Silver has kept its ancient name (tAa-r/), corresponding to Pliny's Abies. 2. Several passages in Pliny lead us to the same conclusion. The seeds of Picea, he says, are small and black. ij: The seeds of the Spruce Fir are smaller than those of the Silver. * Ovid, Fasti, iv. 493 — " Illic ascendit geminas pro lampade Pinus." f Pliny, xvi. 18 — "Picea montes amat atque frigora" — "Situs (abietis) in excelso montium, ceu maria fugerat." Viryil, Bi/c. eel. vii. 66 — " Abies in montibus altis." Geor^. ii. 250— " At sceleratum exquirere frigus diffi- cile est : piceae tautum taxique nocentes interdum, aut hedersE pandunt ves- tigia nigra. "' I Fliiii/, xvi. 19 — " Picefe (habent nucloos) minimos ac nigros: propter quod Gru-'ci plithirophoron euui appelluut." 134 THE CONIFEEOUS PLANTS OF ITALY. 3. He says that the cones o^ Picea are smaller and more slen- der than those oi Abies.* The cones of the Spruce Fir are not indeed smaller, but they are thinner in proportion to their length. He says that the female Abies has no seeds.j This passage, ac- cording to Sprengel, refers to the Silver, the scale of which is detached from the rachis, which is not the case in the Spruce Fir. 4. He mentions farther, that the pinnated foliage of the Abies is sufficiently thick to stop rain. J This is true of the Silver, the leaves of which are disposed in two rows, and thus give tlie branches a resemblance to the wings of a bird. 5. The Abies is, according to him, the largest and roimdest of all the Conifers.§ This remark applies better to the Silver than to the Spruce Fir, which is like a pyramid. He says that the wood of the Abies is softer and more useful than that of the Picea;\^ and, indeed, the Silver is the most easily split, and gives tlie best boards. 6. Whilst the epithets nigra or nigrans are given generally to the two species of Fir,1[ Pliny says that the Abies is hilarior, which no doubt means that it is less dark :** this applies best to the Silver. 7. The Picea, according to Pliny, gives a greater quantity of resin, and inoreover a sort of white pearl, which looks so like incense, that they cannot be distinguished when mixed together ; Avhilst he says it is a fault if Abies gives resin, since its wood is used for building purposes ; but he says in another place that the wood of Picea is also employed for planks and weaker purposes.|| It is easy to imagine that Pliny, talking of the Spruce Fir which * Pliny, ihid. — "Picesevero totis paniculis minoribus et gracilioribus," &c. f Pliny, ibid. — " Hsec (paniculse) Abietis masculoe primori parte nucleos habent, non item feminse." X Pliny, ibid. — " Abies folio pinnato densa ut imbres non transmittal," and compare lib. xvi. s. 38, where it is said of the leaves of both the Picea and Abies " insecta pectinum modo," a remark which is only applicable to the Silver Fir. § Pliny, ibid. — " Abies e cunctis amplissima est — arbore rotundior." II Pliny, ibid. — " Materie moUior et utilior." \ Virgil, jEneid, viii. 599 — "Nigra Abiete." lb. ix. 87 — " Nigranti Picea." ** Pliny, xvi. 19 — "hilarior in totum." ft Pliny, xvi. 18 — " Picea plurimam resinam fundit, interveniente Can- dida gemma tam simili thuris, ut mixta visu discerni non c[U3eat " — " Ma- teries (Abietis expetitae navigiis) pra;cipua trabibus et pluriniis vita2 operi- bus. Eesina ei vitium, unde fructus unus picece "'■ — " Materies piceiE ad fissiles scandulas, cupasque et pauca alia secamenta;'' and s. 19 — " Piceae perfiisa resina." Abies is sometimes used figuratively for a ship, Virg. Georg. ii. 08. " Et casus Abies visura marines." Compare JE?ieid viii. 91. THE CONIFEROUS PLANTS OF ITALY. 135 grows on the Alps, would especially think of resin and of planks when speaking of the Silver inhabiting the Apennines. 8. The same author says that the Picea repullulat* and in- deed we may clip the Spruce Fir without injury. 9. The Abies has, according to him, a single root. This is the case with the Silver, whose root descends like a post ; but it is not so with the Spruce Fir.f 10. Lastly, Vitruvius, speaking of wood for building brought from the Apennines, mentions Abies, and not Picea.\ AYe may then look upon the Abies of the Romans as our Silver, and their Picea as our Spruce Fir. The first grew, as it does at present, on the Apennines — that is clear ; but we might ask whether the latter, though not found there now, did not for- merly grow on the same mountains. Pliny calls the Picea a sad tree, which is placed as a sign before houses for the dead, and which is used when green for funeral piles. § From its being so frequently employed, we must suppose that the Spruce Fir grew in the countries to the south of the Alps.|l Everything is explained when we know that this tree, easily clipped, was in- troduced into gardens ; Pliny expressly says so when he notices the use of this tree in funerals ;1[ it is even probable that it was cultivated for this express purpose. In another passage the planted Picea is referred to.** Another proof that the Spruce Fir did not grow wild in the Apennines is given us in a passage from Vitruvius cited above, in which no mention is made of any- thing but Abies. Another doubt may arise fiom Pliny saying that the best pitch for wine-casks comes from Brutium (Cala- bria), and is obtained from the Picea.\] But this argument is sufficiently refuted, I think, by an analogous passage in another author. In one of the chapters of Dionysius of Halicarnassus,|| which the celebrated philologer Mai has discovered, the Conifers found on the Sila mountain in Calabria are noticed, and mention * Pliny, xvi. 19. t Pliny, xvi. 56 — " (Radices) singtilares Abieti." X Vitruv. ii. 10 — " De Abiete supernate et infernate" is clearly on the other and on this side of the Apennines, and not, as Bode suggests, beyond and on this side of the Caspian Sea. Compare Pliny, xvi. 76 — " Romse Abies infernas supernati praefertur." § Pliny, xvi. 18 — "Feralis arbor, et funebri indicio ad fores posita ac rogis vireus.'' II Compare Pliny, xvi. 14 — " Cortex et fagis, tilise, abieti, picese in magno usxi agresti.' % Pliny, xvi. 18 — " Jam tamen et in domos recepta, tonsili facilitate."' _ ** Pliny, ibid. — " Picea feritatis paulum mitigatte satu." Compare lib. XV. s. 9 — " Picea sativa." ft Pliny, xvi. 25—" Pix in Italia ad vasa vino condendo maxime probatur Brutia. Fit e picea; resina." Compare xvi. 22. XX Dion. Halicarn. xx. 15, 16. 136 THE COJSIFEKOUS PLANTS OF ITALY. is made of the pitch of Brutium obtained from this mountain. Dionysius names three sorts of Conifers : fXarr}^ which he says darts upwards towards the sky, tievkj] Truipa, and ttitvc. If we turn to Brocchi's observations on tlie Conifers found on the same mountain, we also find three species mentioned, viz. the Silver, or eXuTii ; the Laricio, apparently the ttevkj] TruLpa, or fat Pine {■KEVKt} is used for the true Pines generally : Pinea, for example, is called ttevkt]) ; and lastly, P. hrutia, which will be the irirvc. The latter also occurs in Theophrastus ; it is not quite certain to which species it applies ; but, at any rate, it is a Pine and not a Fir, whence it follows that at this period there was probably but one species, viz. the Silver Fir, on the mountains of Ca- labria, When speaking of Pine nuts, and of the variety with a brittle shell, Pliny adds that there is a third species, which he calls nuces sajypince. They are obtained from Picea sativa, and have, instead of a hard shell, a skin which is so soft that it can be eaten with the kernel.* There must be some error here, for the kernels of the Spruce Fir are not eatable. One might think that Pliny was acquainted with the nuts of Pinus Cemhra, a tree that grows in the same geographical conditions as the Spruce Fir, and that he supposed the nuces sapjnncE-\ to come from this tree ; but the nuts of P. Cemhra are hard like those of P. Pinea, and he says that the nuces sapjnnce come from a cultivated Pinea. Lastly, Pliny mentions a trunk of a Fir remarkable for its size, which he saw on board a ship that brought an obelisk from Egypt, by the order of Caligula.j Let us now go to the Larch. I look upon the Larix of the Romans as identical with our Larch, although some doubts have arisen on this point. I can, I think, also show that this tree was found nowhere in Italy but on the Alps. 1 . This tree is at present called Larice on the Italian Alps. 2. Pliny says that its wood is much better than that of the Spruce Fir ; that it is incorruptible, nearly indestructible, and remains quite sound under water ; that it is redder and stronger- * riinij, XV. 9 — " Tertium (genus) Sappinise e Picea sativa, nucleoruin cute verius qukin putamine, adeo molli ut siiiiul mandetur." t 111 another place it is said on the contrary that Supinus is the trunk of Abies, barked and plunged in water, lb. xvi. 76 — " Abietis quae pars a terra fuit enodis est ; hsec qua diximus ratione, fluviata decorticata, atque ita Sapinus vocatur." Compare lib. xvi. 23. X Pliii;/, xvi. 76 — " Abies admirationis pracipuae visa est in navi, qua? ex Egypto Caji principis jussu obeliscum in V^aticano circo statutum quatuorque truucos lapidis ejusdem ad sustinendum eum aduxit." THE CONIFEKOUS PLANTS OF ITALY. 137 smelling than that of the Spruce Fir.* He adds that its trunk, like tliat of the Silver, is very tall,t stouter and longer than that of the Spruce Fir ; that its bark is more compact, its leaf more hairy, more unctuous, denser, and more flexible ; whilst the leaves of the Spruce Fir are more scattered, drier, thinner, and more glossy. | Though this description is not perfectly cor- rect in some of its details, still, taking it altogether, it is pretty clear that the Larch is meant. It is an ei'ror on Pliny's part to suppose that the Larch is always green, incombustible, and with- out cones ; an error that is explained, if we admit that formerly, as at present, the Larch only grew on the Alps.§ 3. He says tliat from the Larch there exudes a honey-coloured liquid which never hardens. This is most certainly the Venetian turpentine.il 4. Vitruvius affords us another very important proof, and that is, that formerly, as at the present day, the Larch grew only on the Alps. He says the Larch is only known to the inhabitants of the municipia situated in the neighbourhood of the Po and the coasts of the Adriatic. 1[ Then, like Pliny, he falls into the error of supposing the wood of the Larch to be incombustible, and gives as proof the fact, that when Caesar, in his wars among the Alps, besieged the castle of Larignum, he wished to set fire to a tower ; but, to his great surprise, he found that the tower, though surrounded with burning wood, was not hurt. When the besieged afterwards surrendered, and they were asked whence they obtained the wood for their tower, they pointed out tlie trees to Caesar, trees « hich were there in great abundance, and had given the name to their stronghold. They send, says he, this wood along tlie Po to Kavenna, Ancona, and other municipal towns in these countries. Finally, he remarks that, if this wood * Pliny, -K.y\. 19 — "Materies prEestantioi- longe (picja), incorrupta vis, mori contumax : rubeus prseterea et odore acrior." lb. xvi. 78 — " Cariem vetustatemque tardissime sentiunt Larix, Robur," &c. lb. s. 79 — " Larix in humore priecipua."' f Flint/, xvi. 76 — " Hse (Larix et Abies) omnium arborum altissimse ac rectissimae.'" X Pliny, xvi. 19 — '• Sed Picea minus alta quam Larix, ilia crassior, levior- que cortice, folio villosior, pinguior et densior, molliorque flexu. At picese rariora siccioraque folia et tenuiora ac magis algeutia." § Pliny, ibid. — "Omnia ea (coniferse) perpetuo virent — s. 33. Sylvestrium generis folia non deciduimt — larici." lb. 19 — "Larix nee ardet nee car- bonem facit, nee alio modo ignis vi consumitur quam lapides." lb. — "E ramis generum horum paniculorum modo nucamenta squamatim compacta dependent, praeterquam larici." II Pliny, xvi. 19 — "Plusculum huic erumpit liquoris, melleo colore, atque lentiore nunquam durescentis." \ Vitruv. ii. 9 — " Larix vero qui non est notus nisi his miuiicipalibus qui smit circa ripam flimiinis Padi et littora maris Adriatici." 138 THE CONIFEROUS PLANTS OF ITALY. could be brought to Rome, it would be very advantageous, be- cause they might use it against fire by placing it under the eaves of the roofs. He also mentions a honey-coloured juice obtained from it, which he says is used against Ethisie. The mistake with respect to the incombustibility of the Larch is easily explained ; for when its wood has been long exposed to air, and especially to frost and snow, it burns with difficulty. 5. Pliny's remark that the Larch grows in the same places as the Spruce Fir* confirms what has just been said about the geo- grapliical position of this tree ; the same conclusion may be arrived at from another passage from the same author. He says, that at Home, a bridge (po?is naumachiarius') over a place where sea-fights were represented had been burnt, and that the Emperor Tiberius ordered Larches to be felled in Rhetia, i. e. in the Alps, to repair it.f He afterwards^ notices the greatest tree that had been seen in Rome at his time: it was exhibited as a curiosity by Tiberius on this same bridge : it was kept till the building of Nero's amphitheatre; it was a trvmk of a Larch 120 feet long and 2 feet thick. We have remarked above that the localities in which the Cypress is found in Italy show that it is exotic. Pliny says that it was a foreign tree, brought from Crete, and difficult to culti- vate ;§ he thinks that tlie reason Cato calls it Tarentine is that it was first brought to Tarentum. || According to a remark of Pliny's, borrowed from Theo- phrastuSjIF the pyramidal variety of the Cypress grows in Crete, on the top of Mount Ida and the White Mountains, which are covered with eternal snow ; a circumstance that surprises Pliny, since elsewhere it only prospers in warm countries.** Theo- phrastus, however, merely says that it is said to grow on the * Pliny, xvi. 19 — " Situs idem (ac picece)." f Pliny, xvi. 74 — " Sic certe Tiberius Caesar concremato ponte nauma- chiario larices ad restituendum cadi in Rha;tia prsefinivit.' I Pliny, xvi. 76 — " Amplissima arbonim ad hoc sevi existimatur Romse visa, quam propter miraculam Ti. Csesar in eodem ponte naumachiario ex- posuerat advectam cum reliqua materia : duravit ad Neronis principis am- phitheatrum. Fuit autem trabs e larice, longa pedes 120, bipedali crassi- tudine aqualis." § Pliny, xvi. GO — " Cupressus advena et difficillime nascentium fuit — huic patria insula Creta." II Pliny, Udd. — " Quum Cato Tarentinam earn appellat : credo quod primum eo venerit.'' ^ Tlteophrast. Hist. Plant, iv. 1. ** Pliny, xvi. 60 — " Ilia (Cupressus femiaa : pyramidalis) vero etiam non appellato solo, ac sponte, maximeque inldseis raontibus et quos albos vocant, summisque jugis, unde nives nuuquam absunt, plurima, quod miremur ; alibi non nisi in tempore provenieus." THE CONIFEROUS PLANTS OF ITALY. 139 snowy tops of the mountains, and the position in the middle regions of the mountains has probably been confounded with the position on the tops. Near Somma, in Lombardy, there is a Cypress, which Napoleon respected when he constructed the Simplon. It is 121 feet high and 23 feet in circumference at 1 foot above the ground. This diameter, when the very slow rate of growth of such trees is remembered, proves it to be very old. According to an ancient tradition, it was planted in the year that Jesus Christ was born ; but the Abbe Belese says that according to an ancient chronicle this tree existed in the time of Julius Caesar, i. e. half a century B. C* Pliny mentions a Cypress at Rome that was thought to be as old as the city itself, and which fell in the reign of Nero.| At any rate, it is certain that the cultivation of the Cypress was known in very early times. Cato and Varro say that it was planted in gardens to mark their limits.ij: Varro and Columella§ recommend its wood as well fitted for stakes for vineyards. Pliny gives rather an unfavourable account of this tree :|| its growth is slow, its fruits are useless, its berries ugly, its leaves bitter, with a strong smell, its shadow is not agreeable, it has but little wood (or its wood is light and porous), it is nearly a bush. He distinguishes two varieties, the pyramidal and that with horizontal branches : forms which he wrongly supposes to indicate the male and female plant.lf He remarks, moreover, that it may be pruned, that it is used for making thick hedges, and that by clipping it representations of the chase, of ships, and other objects may be given to it.** The Juniper of the ancients is the same as that of the moderns : there is no doubt of this. The Italian word Ginepro indicates it. Pliny says that it has spines instead of leaves, that it keeps its fruit all the year round, and sometimes those of the pre- * Loudon, Arboretum, iv. 2470. The Milanese chronicler might not, how- ever, have been very correctly informed. t Pliny, xvi. 86 — " Fuit cum ea (Lotus in vulcanali quod Romulus con- stituit, Eequseva urbi) cupressus aequalis, circa suprema Neronis principis prolapsa atque neglecta." X Cato, 28, 151. Varro, i. 15. § Varro, i. 26. Columella, iv. 26. II Pliny, xvi. 60 — " Natu morosa, fructu supervacua, baccis torva, folio amara, odore violenta, ac ne umbra quidem gratiosa, materie rara, ut pcene fruticosi generis.'' ^ Pliny — " Duo genera earum ; meta in fastigium convoluta quse et fe- mina appellatur. Mas spargit extra se ramos." ** Pliny, ibid. — " Nunc vero tonsilis facto in densitate parietum coerci- taque gracilitate perpetuo tenera. Trahitur etiam in picturas operis tapiarii, venatus, classesve, et imagines rerum tenuifolio, brevique et virenti semper vestiens."' 140 THE CONIFEROUS PLANTS OF ITALY. ceding year. He says that the Juniper has no flowers, and adds that some, by a mistake, suppose that tliere are two sorts : one with flowers and the other with fruits ;* this assertion refers perhaps to the two sexes, which in this plant are on different individuals. By Oxycedrus the Greek and Roman writers meant the present Juniperus Oxycedrus, and probably macrocarpa, which they no doubt distinguished as little as do most botanists of the present day. Pliny mentions it when speaking of J. phcenicea, and says that it resembles the Juniper by its sharp prickly leaves ; this is, indeed, the distinguishing mark between the Oxycedrus and phcenicea. His statement that it is branching and knotty, and that its fruit is as large as that of the myrtle, agrees very well with our oxycedrus and macrocarpa. On the other hand, it cannot be said that its fruit is sweet. When, besides, he supposes that it only grows in Phoenicia, his error probably arises from his following the Greek authors. "j" Juniperus phoiuicea was also known to the ancients; it was the Cedrus, Citrus, and Citrea of the Romans. It is placed in the same rank as the Juniperus and Oxycedrus by Pliny and Vitruvius ; but they add that its leaves are like those of the Cypress. This resemblance is, indeed, the most striking dis» tinction,:}: and their observation evidently proves that neither the Cedar of Lebanon, which the ancients also called Cedrus, nor the Citron-tree, which they called Citrus, can here be meant. When Pliny talks of the great Cedar {Cedriis major), it is not •quite clear whether he means the Cedar of Lebanon ov Juniperus phcenicea. The last supposition is supported by the fact that, according to the description, the sexes are on different plants ; and the first, by the remark relating to the lasting character of the wood and its utility for making statues of the gods. Its seed is said to resemble that of the cypress. This agrees with Juni- perus j)hcenicea better than with the Cedar, if we suppose Pliny observed accurately the difference between the seeds and berries. The seeds of the Cedar are much larger and have a large per- * Pliny, xvi. 38 — " Junipero spina pro folio est." Ik. 44 — " Juniperus annifera habetur ; novusque fructus cum annotino pendet." lb. 40 — " Nee Juniperi florent (at another place he says the same of the Picea, Larix, and Pinas). Quidem earum duo genera tradimt, alteram florere nee ferre, quae veru non floreat ferre protinus baccis nascentibus, quae bieunio haereant. Sed id falsum omnibusque iis dura facies semper." f Plini/, x'u'i. 11 — "Juniperi similem habent Phoenices et cednim mi- noreni. Duo ejus genera Lycia et Phoenicia, difieruut folio : nam quae durum, acutum, spinosum habet, oxycedros vocatur, raniosa et nodis infesta : altera odore pra;stat. Fructura ferunt myrti niagnitudine, dulcem sapore."' I Pliny, xvi. 44 — " Citrese et Juniperus omnifera; habentur." — Vitruv. ii. 9 — " Arboris ejus (Cedri) sunt similes cupressea; foliaturse.'" THE CONIFEROUS PLANTS OF ITALY. 141 sistent wing. Pliny probably confounded these plants the one with the other.* The ancient botanists, like the common people of the present time, called its wood Cedar. Pliny says that many trees of Citnis are found in the country of the Moors, near the Atlas, and that this wood is imported by the wealthy for making tables ;-|" it may be asked whether this refers to Juni- perus jihcenicea, which grows in North Africa to a much greater height than in Italy, or to Callitris quadrivalvis, which, according to Desfontaines, grows on the Atlas and on the uncul- vated hills of Barbary ; or lastly to the Cedar of Lebanon, which, according to some recent observations, is also found on the Atlas. The Sabuia of the ancients ought also to be regarded as our Juniperus Sabina. The ancients place it among the evergreens ; and when it is said that there are two sorts, one with the leaves of the Tamarisk, and the other with those of the Cypress, the two sorts of leaves of this shrub have probably been remembered : the leaves of the one sort are short, closely packed, arranged in four series, and resemble those of the Cypress ; while those of the other are long, drawn out, and look like the leaves of the Tamarisk. I The Taxus of the ancients is no doubt the same as the present one. Pliny mentions it at the end of his enumeration of the Conifers, and says that it resembles them ; that it is the only one with berries ; that it is dark, graceful, sad-looking, and without resin. § In another passage, he says expressly that it is an evergreen. II The dark colour of this tree and its thick shade, mentioned also by Lucanus,ir led the ancients to look upon it as * Pliny, xiii. II — " Et majoris cedri duo genera : quae floret, fructum non fert ; frugifera non floret ; et in ea antecedentem fructum occupat novus. Semen ejus cupresso simile. Materie vero ipsi aeternitas ; itaque et simul- acra deorum ex e^ factitaverunt." t Pliny, xiii. 29 — " Atlas mons peculiar! proditur silva de qua diximus. Confines ei Mauri, quibus plurima arbor citri et mensarum insania, quas feminae viris contra margaritas regerunt." I PZirt?/, xvi. 33 — "Folia non decidunt — Sabinse." 76. xxiv. 61 — "Her- ba Sabinse, brathy appellata a Graecis, duorum generum est ; altera tamarici similis folio, altera cupresso ; quare quidem Creticam cupressum dixerunt." — Pliny is incorrect when he calls the Sabina a herb ; it is a shrub. § Pliny, xvi. 20 — " Similis his etiamnum aspectu est, nequid praetereatur, taxus, minime virens, gracilisque et tristis, ac dira, nuUo succo, ex omni- bus sola baccifera." II Pliny, xvi. 33 — "Folia non decidunt abieti, &c. — taxo."' Lib. xvi. 78 — " Cariem vetustatemque non sentiunt Cupressus, cedrus, taxus." ^ Liicani, Pharsalia, ed. Weber, vi. 645 — " Phoebo non pervia taxus opacat." 142 THK CONIFEROUS PLANTS OF ITALY. consecrated to the infernal regions. Silius Italicus,* in his de- scription of the lower world, places a large Yew-tree there ; and Claudian describes the Furies as carrying yew -torches. "j" It was generally believed in ancient times that the yew was poisonous. Plinyl says that the male tree is noxious, that its berries, es- pecially in Spain, are poisonous ; and even that wine kept in casks, made of this wood in Gaul, can cause death ; and that in Arcadia the poison is so strong, that any one who eats or sleeps under the shadow of this tree is killed. Columella calls yew- trees Taxos nocentes ;% Claudian pestifei'as ;\\ both Virgil and Columella say that bees shun it. IF The frequent mention of the Yew by the ancients leads us to suppose that in their time, as well as in our own, it grew both on the Apennines and on the Alps. The art of clipping trees and of giving them all sorts of shapes to ornament gardens (opus topiarium) was, as we have already stated, known to the Romans ; although this was done with the Cypress, the Silver Fir, and the Box, it was not prac- tised on the Yew, probably because the latter tree required a colder climate than the plains afforded. There is no reason for supposing that the species of Conifers indigenous in Italy at the present time differ from those of former ages. The most common and the most easily distinguished are expressly mentioned by the ancient authors, and are, for the most part, described with sufficient accuracy to enable us to determine what they really were. Those that are not mentioned may, from tlie vague ideas of tliose times, be considered as having been united to the others, or as having altogether escaped observation. Although Italy contains 20 species of Conifers (excluding the Cypress), and Europe north of the Alps has but G, the number of individual trees is by no means apportioned in the same way. The Conifers in the north of Europe form immense forests, and consequently play an important part in the physiognomy of nature. In Italy, on the contrary, with the exception of the Alps, where they form by their quantity a region at the mean height, these trees constitute but small scattered woods, whicti * Silius Italicus, ed. Rnperti, xiii. 595, 596. t Claudian, Rapt. Pros. edit. Gesneri, 3, 38G. X Flinij, xvi. 20 — " Mas noxio fructu. Letale quippe baccis, in His- pania prsecipue venerium inest. Vasa etiam viatoria ex ea vinis in Gal- lia facta, mortifera fuisse compertum est et esse in Arcadia tain prsesen- tis veneni, ut qui obdormiant sub ea, cibumque capiant moriautur." § Columella, ix. 4, .3. II liapt. Pros. 3, 386. ^ Columella, 1. c. Vircjil, Eel. ix. 30. THE CONIFEROUS PLANTS OF ITALY. 143 give no important feature to the face of the country. Along the coast of the Gulf of Genoa, and as far as the Roman States, some forests of Pines peculiar to the basin of the Mediterranean are certainly found : Pinus Pinea, Pinaster, and halepensis ; the coppices near the coast contain Junipers of the south of Europe ; forests of Spruce exist in some countries of the central Apen- nines : for example, near Vallombrosa and Camaldoli, and generally in the upper part of Tuscany. Forests of Conifers are also met with in the Abruzzi, and on Mount Sila, in Calabria, where the Silver Fir or the Calabrian or the Corsican Pine pre- dominate. On Etna, lastly, forests of the Corsican Pine exist ; but the whole is not to be compared with the immense tracts covered by these trees in the north of Europe. It appears, then, that Italy is not very largely stocked with Conifers, and they consequently play a subordinate part in the operations of life. In the Alps exclusively do we find these trees the objects of the same industry as in the north ; here they are cut down, slidedover the sides of the mountains, floated down the rivers, divided in saw-mills, and sent away as trunks, beams, and planks : this work, too, is only found going on here and there, and on a comparatively small scale. In Scandinavia and northern Russia the houses are constructed almost entirely of the wood of Conifers ; in central Europe this wood is also largely used for beams, floors, and staircases ; in Italy, with the exception of the Alps, the houses with the stair- cases and floors are built of nothing but stone or brick. In the north, Conifers are used for palisades, bridges, and roads ; in the centre of Europe, they are greatly employed for bridges, par- titions, and garden palisades ; but in Italy the bridges are of stone, and high Malls surround the gardens. The wooden pipes for water and the piles of the north are replaced in Italy by stone aqueducts and piers. As Italy, with the exception of the Alps, has but few mines, she does not, like the north, employ large quantities of Fir-wood. Ship-building and navigation have not the importance that they have in the north. Genoa obtains planks for her ships from the western Alps and from Corsica ; Venice and Trieste theirs from the eastern Alps ; Naples has hers from Sila ; Italy, however, imports pitch, tar, and other resinous products from foreign countries ; but Venice is the principal place of exportation of one of these products, Venice turpentine, which is obtained from the Larch on the high regions of the Alps. On the south slope of the Alps turpentine is also obtained from the two species of Fir; it is collected by the Italian peasants, who ascend the mountains and climb up the trees to make incisions in them. The Cypress and Scotch Fir are much more important in the 144 THE CONIFEROUS PLANTS OF ITALY. Italian gardens than Conifers in those of the north of Europe, if the English gardens are excepted, where, from the mildness of the winter, the beautiful Cedar is able to flourish, and where tiuch a high value is placed on pineta composed of Conifers from all countries. Many traditions exist which intimate that Italy, and especially the Apennines, were more wooded and consequently richer in Conifers than at the present day ; but as I shall speak elsewhere of this subject, I shall confine myself to the following observa- tions. At Rome, according to Cornelius Nepos, the houses were covered with wood, till the war broke out with Pyrrhus,* consequently for nearly five centuries ; according to Dionysius of Halicarnassus, the boards prepared at Sila were sufficient for the whole of Italy, were used for building houses and ships, and the Romans obtained a considerable income by establisliing the preparation of the pitch of Brutium.f During the middle ages the Yew was very much destroyed in consequence of the great commerce made by the Venetians of its wood ; for, before the discovery of powder, the Yew was in high esteem for making bows. J In former times the Yew was much more common to the north of the Alps than at present, as we may see from wiiat Caisar says on this subject with respect to Germany and Gaul.§ XXI. — Contributions to a History of the Relation between Climate and Vegetatio?i in various parts of the Globe. No, 5. — The Vegetation of the Province of Ceard, in Brazil. By George Gardner, F.L.S., Director of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Ceylon. From Pernambuco I went by sea to Aracaty, a small town in the province of Ceara, about three degrees an(l a half to the north of Pernambuco, with the intention of making an inland journey from thence to the Rio Tocantin, and by it descend to the Amazons. The country around Aracaty is still flatter than it is at Pernambuco, and consequently does not atford much that is interesting t(f the botanist. With the exception of one small hill * Pliny, xvi. 1 .5 — " Scandula contectam fuisse Eomam ad Pyrrhi usque bellum annis 470, Cornelius Nepos autor est." f Dion. Halicarn. xx. 15, 16. X For this reason the exportation of yew-wood was prohibited in Scot- land. § CcEsar, de Bello Gall. vi. 31 — " Cativolus taxo, cujus magna in Gallia Germaniaque copia est, se examinavit.'' RELATION BETWEEN CLIMATE AND VEGETATION. H5 to the south-west, and a few sand-hills towards the sea, it is one continued sandj' plain, covered with Caryiahuha Palms ( Corypha cerifera. Mart.), but nothing else worthy the name of a tree. This palm is one of the most elegant of its size I have met with. Its stem, wliich is quite straight, rises to a height of about forty feet, while its fan-shaped leaves are so arranged as to form a sort of round ball at the sunnnit. It exists in vast quantities, the first part of the road from Aracaty to led, a town about 200 miles inland, passing through a dense forest of it, more than 20 leagues in length, its foliage sheltering a great multitude of parrots, parrokeets, pigeons, woodpeckers, and hosts of other small birds. At this place I was obliged to remain for about a fortnight to make arrangements for my journey, and during that time I made a few short excursions, but did not meet with much to reward me. A few species of Cassia, Jussieua, Herpestis, a Zizyphus, a few Mimosce, a Patagonula, two or three species of Turnera, Angelonia arguta, Benth., and a few other plants, Mere all I met with. The rainy season was just over, and the vegetation was already much burned up by the drought, I reached the town of Icc5 in eight days. For the first two-thirds of the way the country is level ; but the rest is undulating, and sometimes rocky, from being traversed by several small serras. In this latter part much of it consists of large open tracts, called Vargems, which in the dry season are nearly destitute of vege- tation, forming true deserts, while others are covered with Ca~ tinga forests, similar to those which exist on the banks of the Rio de San Francisco, nearly all the trees in which, when I passed through them, were destitute of leaves. On this journey I collected the following plants : — Two new species of Angelo- nia, A. arguta, Benth., and A. hijiora, Benth. The latter is a very handsome species, and is now in cultivation in England, having been raised by Mr. Murray of Glasgow, from seeds sent home by me. It is known among cultivators by the name of A. grandijiora. It grew in great masses on the sandy banks of a small river, and, being in full flower, was a most beautiful ob- ject. In moist sandy places grew a very fine Herpestis, about a foot high, with rose-coloured flowers ; and in gravelly places on the open campos a beautiful Evolvulus, also about a foot high, very much resembling Linum usitatissimum in the arrangement, size, and colour of its flowers : a few small strong- smelling spe- cies of Pedis grew in similar situations. On the rocky ridges, which consisted of gneiss cropping out nearly vertically, grew a few species o^ Opuntia and Cereus, the curious Pithecoseris pa~ courinoides. Mart., and a fine shrubby Vernonia,. In dry sandy places I found a few small Composites, among them a new spe- cies of Stiftnopappus. The only trees in flower were Sapindus VOL. III. li 146 RELATION BETWEEN CLIMATE AND VEGETATION saponaria, Patagonula sp. n., growing gregariously, and form- ing large forests; an evergreen Zizyphus, growing solitary in the campos, and giving shade both to the traveller and to the cattle, which graze there in large herds ; a fine new species of Triplaris, the trees which bear the female flowers being conspi- cuous at a great distance, from tlie large pink-coloured calycine segments ; Licania rigida, Benth., a low wide-spreading tree, also solitary in the open campos, and revered by the traveller for its shade. J\Iost of the shrubs were out of flower, a 3Iim.osa or two and a fine Comhretum being all I met with. In a few small lakes which we passed surrounded by Carnahuha Palms, I found a Limnanthemum with white flowers, and a large yellow-flowered Utriculariu. Ico is a fine town for the inland parts of Brazil ; but the country around it was so completely dried up, and so completely a desert, that during several walks I took into the country I did not meet with more than half-a-dozen plants in flower. One of these was, however, a very interesting one, a species of Lycopo- dium, nearly allied to the bell-shaped species brought from the west coast of America, but which opens out when put into water for some time. The species from Ico has not yet been described. It grows in open parts of the Catimja forests, and in the dry season is scarcely to be seen, from the fronds being rolled closely over each other, the old withered ones being the outermost ; but as soon as a shower of rain falls the absorption of moisture causes them to expand, and the ground is then one slieet of green. The species of Lycopodium which roll themselves up in this manner do not lie on the surface of the ground, to be blown about as the wind listeth, as an Edinburgh botanist in a notice of them has stated, but are so firmly fixed in the soil by their numerous fibrous roots, that it is with no little force they are rooted up. Having been informed at Ico that I should find the country in the neighbourhood of Crato, another town about 100 miles to the south-west, well adapted for my pursuits, as the vegetation there remains verdant all the year round, from its greater eleva- tion, and from the existence of several small streams which flow from a mountain range that exists there — on my journey to that place I passed through a country which differs remarkably from that which lies between Aracaty and Ico, both in its physical ap[)earance and the nature of its vegetation. The former is of a hilly, undulating character, exhibiting none of those large open plains which are met with nearer the coast, but, on the contrary, it is all wooded with small trees and shrubs, nearly the wliole of which are deciduous. As it was in the beginning of the dry season when I started from Ico, there was scarcely a leaf to be seen, a circumstance which, to a botanist particularly, makes a IN VARIOUS PARTS OF THE GLOBE. 147 journey in such a country very monotonous and uninteresting. The most abundant tree is that called by the inhabitants Ai-veira {Schbius Aroeira, St. Hil.) : it flowers before the leaves appear, and in this state much resembles the Alder of Europe when loaded with its catkins. Its mode of growth is upright, and it reaches to a height of from forty to fifty feet. Large Ingas and Mimosas, and the Triplaris and Licania rigida, already mentioned, are also common. In passing along, the eye is sometimes relieved from the flowerless monotony of the woods by seeing here and there a solitary pink or yellow arboreous Bign07iia, or an azure-blossomed Jacai-anda, destitute of foliage, but rearing their consequently more conspicuous and magnificent diadems of flowers above the other denizens of the woods, or an occasional plant of Cochlo- spermum sei-ratifoliiim, loaded also with its large and beautifully yellow bloom, attracts the attention of the traveller. On dry hilly places there were abundance of small shrubs ; the only ones, however, that I met with in flower were two or three species of Lippia, and a Krameria similar to that found in the island of Itamarica. Within a day's journey of Crato I collected the only Orchideous plant met with from the coast upward, a new Oncidium, which I have called O. tirophyllum. The inhabit- ants call it Rabo de Tata (armadillo's tail). It grows in great plenty on the under sides of the brandies and on the stems of Geoff'roya sicperba, H. B. A. K., the back of which is soft, and well adapted for the growth of epiphytes. It was not till I came within a few leagues of Crato that the country became more verdant, and large tracts of land planted with sugar-cane gave the assurance that I was approaching a place better suited to my pursuits than any I had seen since leaving the coast. The town of Crato is small, and situated in the hollow part of a large valley, several leagues in extent, and bounded on the south and west by the Serra de Araripe, an eastern branch of a low moun- tain range which runs from south to north, and divides the pro- vince of Ceara from that of Piauhy. Sugar-cane, mandioca, rice, tobacco, and a little cotton are the principal articles of culture in the vicinity of Crato. From the juice of the cane a kind of im- pure sugar is prepared, csX\ei\Rapadura, and made into hard cakes about the size of bricks. A kind of rum is also prepared from it, which meets with a very ready sale. Almost all the fruits which are sold in the towns near the coast grow here, such as the orange, lime, lemon, mango, papaw, banana, plantain, grape, pine-apple, melon, water-melon, &c. There are a few small plantations of cocoa-nuts, which appear to thrive and bear abun- dantly ; and in the woods are a great number of Cashew trees, but their fruit, or rather the thickened peduncle, which is the esculent part, is small, not bigger than a cherry. In the Ca- L 2 H8 RELATION BETWEEN CLIMATE AND VEGETATION tingas, or deciduous forests, the Mangaha {Hancornia speciosci) is common, as are also the Araca and Guava, two species of Psidium. Another delicious fruit belonging to this genus is the 3Iarangaha. It is the produce of a little slirub about two feet high, which grows in great abundance on the flat top of the Serra de Araripe. It is th-e Psidium 7ianum of my catalogue, No. 1611. The woods near the town produce a fruit belonging to a new species of Mouriria (31. Pussa, Gardn.), the berry of which is black, and about the size of a large gooseberry. In appearance and taste it very much resembles the fruit of Hugenia caulijiora^ D. C It is called Pussa by the Indians, a name I have retained as its specific appellation. The great cause to which the fertility of this part of the province may be attributed exists in the numerous springs which rise from the base of the Serra de Araripe, and which are again divaricated in a thousand directions for the purpose of irrigation. In this place I was obliged to remain about five months, as the country to the west- ward, to which it was my intention to proceed, is utterly im- practicable during the dry season, being then quite a desert, and atFording neitlier grass nor water for horses; but during that time I was actively employed in making excursions, and bringing together a fine herbarium of the plants of the district. The Serra de Araripe being the best field for my researches, it was frequently visited. Many days, at different times, were spent in exploring its ravines, sides, and summit, every trip yielding me large supplies of new and rare plants. The greater proportion of the wooded districts around Crato consists of deciduous trees and shrubs forming Catinga forests ; but in low moist localities, and along the base of the serra, a great many of the trees and shrubs are evergreen. One of the most common of the denizens of the Catingas here is Magonia glabrata, St. Hil., and it is one of the few truly gregarious trees I have met with in Brazil, co- vering large tracts for miles, to the exclusion of almost every other. In general it is a tree from thirty to forty feet high ; but old individuals attain often to a much greater height. Like many of the other inhabitants of the Catingas, its flowers appear before the leaves. The blossoms are produced in large panicles, are of a yellowish-green colour, and very sweet-scented. The tree is called Imgi by the people of the country, who apply it to many useful purposes. An infusion of the bark of the root is employed to poison fish, and that of the stem to cure old ulcers, while an excellent soap is afforded by the large cotyledons of the seeds. Another tree, wliich grows in similar situations, is a species of Caryocar; and makes a fine appearance when covered with its large racemes of yellow flowers. The oily fruit is a great favourite with the inhabitants, and the hard wood is used IN VARIOUS PARTS OF THE GLOBE. 149 in mill-work. Its native name is Piki. Two large trees be- longing to the Mimosece are also common in the dry woods. One of these, tlie Visgeira of tlie inhabitants, is a species of Parkia (P. plati/cephafa, Bentli.), and is a remarkable tree, from its large fern-like leaves and its dark purple flowers, wliich grow in a large head suspended at the end of a peduncle more than a foot in length. Tlie Jatobd, a species of H[imenaca, is another large tree ; and the Cashew also reaches to a good height, and grows more upright than tlie varietj^ on the coast. A species of Andira, called AngeUue, and a Vitex, are also fine trees of moderate size. Tliere are likewise two large Big/wnias here, one with rose -coloured, the other with yellow flowers; but, owing to the hardness and durability of their wood, which is much sought for by workers in mill and cart work, they are not allowed to attain any great size near the town. Besides these there are many other trees, but which can scai-cely be called large ones. Among them may be mentioned the Pdo de Jangada {Apeiha Tibourhou, A\x\A.), conspicuous from its numerous large prickly capsules. Its wood affords the material of tlie raft-boats so common on the coast, called Jangadas. A species of Byrso- nima, very lovely when in flower, and another of Callisthcnc, also remarkably beautiful, are not uncommon. There are, of course, many otlier trees ; but, from not being eitlier in leaf or in flower during my stay, it was impossible to determine what they were. On the Serra de Araripe several species exist that do not occur on the plains below. The top of the serra is quite flat, forming wdiat are called in the nortli of Brazil Taboleiras. They are generally grassy, and not very thickly wooded, which gives them an orchard-like appearance. The Piki, the Mangaha, the Cashew, and Gompkia liexa- sperma, St. Hil., are the most common trees of the Taboleira ; but there are besides a few fine Legumijiosce, a beautiful Vochy- sia, Qiialea parvijiora, Mait., an Albertinia, and a Styrax. Under the shade of these, many fine herbaceous plants and humble shrubs are to be found. Of Palms only four species are found in the neighbourhood of Crato ; the Carnahuba {Corypha cerifera. Mart.), which is so common between Ara- caty and Ico, straight up to within two days' journey of this place, but is not found nearer. Two of the species are very fine. The tallest is that to which the inhabitants give the nameof jB«- 777«, and is the 3Iauritia vinifera. Mart. It grew very sparingly near Crato in swampy places, but I afterwards met with whole forests of it in the more inland provinces. Anotlier, which nearly equals it in height, is a species of Attalea. It rivals the Cocoa-nut in the height of its stem, and far excels it in the size of its leaves, which at first grow nearly upright, and then curve 150 KELATION BETWEEN CLIMATE AND VEGETATION gently outwards, giving the tree a most magnificent appearance. The third species is the Acrocomia sclerocarpa, Mart., very- striking from its fusiform prickly stem. It is rather strange that this palm, which is also common in the south of Brazil, has there its stem of equal thickness throughout, while everywhere that I have seen it in the north it is very much bellied out in the middle. This variety is common about Pernambuco. It is known at Crato by the name of Macahuha. The fourth kind grows in the Catinga forests, and is of no great size nor beauty. It is called Catole. CactecB are very scarce : I only met with four species, all of them similar to kinds I had already found on the banks of the Rio de San Francisco. Orchidece are still more rare. Only two Epiphytes were found — the Oncidium already mentioned, and a Catasetum-like plant found on the stems of the Catole; and two terrestrial species — a Spira?ithes and a Hahenaria. Around Crato, and in the Catinga forests gene- rally, the Epiphytal OvchidecE of south Brazil are represented by Loratithacece, which, in the shape of different species of Vis- cumdinA Loranthus, but ofViscum in particular, exist on almost every tree, and, being evergreen, give a remarkable appearance to the deciduous forests. Ferns also are rare ; but the ravines in the Serra de Araripe afforded me a few curious ones. Among these was a solitary tree-fern — a Cyathea — the only one I met with so far north. The longest excursion I made during my residence at Crato was to a small town called Barra do Jardim, about sixteen leagues to the south. The road skirts the base of the Serra de Araripe for about half its length, and then crosses it. The breadth of the Taboleira is upwards of thirty miles, and level as a bowling-green ; and since water is nowhere to be found on it, travellers have generally to carry as much as will serve during the greater part of the day. I found it covered with a vegeta- tion similar to that I have already described as existing on it near Villa do Crato. On my journey I found nothing new, ex- cept a species of Rollinia, not imlike the It. longifolia, St. Hil., but a very distinct and undescribed species. On ray arrival at Barra do Jardim, I found the country still more scorched than about Crato, and my collection consequently re- ceived but small additions, though a iew of these were very inte- resting. One of these was a fine arboreous species of Olax ( O. Gardneriana, Benth.), not unlike an orange tree in habit, and bearing abundance of sweet-smelling flowers. A large Hirtella and a fine Laurus were also found in flower. During my stay at Jardim I made two short excursions : one about five leagues to the east, and another three in a westerly direction ; neither, however, productive in a botanical point of view. On my return IN VARIOUS PARTS OF THE GLOBE. 151 from the latter, I collected fine specimens of a curious flat articulated — stemmed, leafless species of Viscum, and a species of Copaifera (C nitida, Mart.); the latter a noble, large tree, conmion on the top of the Serra, and affording abundance of Balsam ', it is called Pdo cP Olho by the inhabitants. In the Cathiga forests, on the south side of the Serra de Araripe, I saw for the first time the strange-looking Chorisia crisjnjiora, but, like all the other trees there, it was neither in leaf nor flower. It is a large tree, belonging to the natural order Bom- hacece, from thirty to fifty feet high, with a wide-spreading top of branches. The stem bulges out towards the middle, till it be- comes about four times as thick as either the top or bottom parts, and from this circumstance is called by the inhabitants Barri- guda. My visit to Jardim was made as much to ascertain the geological structure of the country, as to make botanical collec- tions. During my excursions in the neighbourhood of Crato I ascertained tliat the whole of the rocks there belonged to the chalk formation, the Serra exhibiting the whole series, from the ferruginous sandstone up to the pure white chalk itself, which, like that of England, contains flints. As I have elsewhere pub- lished a dissertation on this subject, I shall say little moie here than tliat this was the first time the chalk formation was found to exist on the great continent of America ; and that while I was at .Jardim I made a fine collection of fossil fishes from the rocks belonging to this formation, as well as a few shells. These fishes were all new to science, and what is remarkable, tliough to be expected, belonging to forms equivalent to those which are found in the fossil state in the chalk rocks of England. On my return to Crato I again made a ^ew excursions in that neigh- bourhood, and tlius added considerably to my Herbarium. One of the finest plants met with at this time was a most beautiful new species oi AUamanda {A. violacea, Gardn.), a shrub from four to six feet high, bearing numerous large flowers not unlike those of Gloxinia speciosa in colour. This is by far the most beautiful species belonguig to the genus, all of which, with this exception, bear yellow flowers. I unfortunately did not meet with it in seed. It was not till about the middle of February, 1839, that I was enabled to leave Crato. It had ramed there for about a fort- night, and as the herbaceous vegetation springs up with astonish- ing rapidity as soon as the rains set in, I was assured that now there would be no lack either of grass or water for my horses. Just before leaving Crato I was so fortunate as to be able to en- gage a young Englishman, who had travelled a good deal in the interior, to accompany me as an assistant. My object now was to gain the city of Oeiras, the capital of the province of Piauhy, 152 llELATION BETWEEN CLIMATE AND VEGETATION and distant from Crato in a westerly direction nearly 500 miles. The greater part of the journey lay through a country which in the dry season becomes quite a desert, but which in the rainy season is verdant enough, the Catinga forests being then covered both with leaves and flowers, and the annual grasses, and the perennial herbaceous plants, which during the drought were ap- parently destroyed, covering the soil with a green carpet. At about two leagues to the west of Crato we entered upon the great Serra of which the Serra de Araripe is a branch. This is called by the native Indians Ibiapaha, and by the Brazilians Serra Vermelha. On the top it is perfectly level, and between thii-ty and forty miles in breadth. The first half of it is very similar to the Serra de Araripe, that is, thinly covered with trees of moderate size, with an abundance of low shrubs and herbaceous plants ; but the west half is very thickly wooded with small trees, large tracts of which are every season burned to allow of a more abundant supply of herbage for the cattle and horses which are sent to pasture on it during the dry season. The Serra does not reach the level country to the westward till about twenty leagues from the western boundary of the Taholeira, gradually decreasing by long undulating or flat sandy tracts. The last of these is a little beyond a place called Varze da Vaca. The low thin forests which cover these tracts are Catingas ; but in the flat tracts the trees are fewer, and during the rainy peason afford abundance of herbage, on which large herds of cattle feed. Although the general vegetation was somewhat similar to that around Crato, 1 found much that was new to me. Among the trees I may mention a large one called Cedra by the inhabitants, the wood of which is in much request for house- hold purposes. It smells strongly of the common cedar, but be- longs to the natural order Meliacece. Another, which I did not meet with in flower, is called JBrduna, and the wood, wliich is very hard, is much used in mill-work. It belongs to the natural order Leguminosce. A Spondias {S. hcherosa, Arrud.) is also common, and produces a fruit which is very much esteemed. There were also some fine large Mimosece. Some of the flower- ing shrubs were very fine, the violaceous Allarnanda being not the least common. The others were species of Coutarea, He- ticteres, Cordla, Cd'salpinia, a scandent shrubby species of Angelonia {A. bracteata^ Benth.), &c. The herbaceous plants consisted of various species of Cleome, Physostemon, a Loasa {L. rupestris, Gardn.), sex era.] Hi/pHds, a Preslea, Angelonia arguta, Benth., with A. serrata, Benth., and A. piibescens, Benth., a beautiful little speciesof£'c7 00 Oi © o «o c o M m - O Oi ^«o Ci !='C.5 5ra,>>>. t^. ;*. >^ >•>.>-. X >. >. >. >• ; o o to M ' , to O ^ !0 I 00 O *~ 00 > o o ai o ' . O Ol OJ cc ( 1 O 31 0> M ' } Oi ( M «0 ift S3 3 ^ t- « *> O -S *j a> '^ O '3 S^ S'c = e.~.£;oi"j2oo!iQj-„ OJ-S ^ ? J-c .2 -s ■&.. = -S ■= o f-E-f-f- E-E-E-f-f-r- 'fl' t3 a 1^ g K 0) c 2 >. ■^ ^ XJ J= h a tu (4- ^ ■? p< i ^ 13 O eSQ .5 ° 1-2 !s 00 SS MAY 1. 1848. 179 £. s. d. Amount of Debt 1 April, 1847 . . . ] 9418 12 4 Less Cash balance . . . . . j 138 2 9 Amount of Debt 1 April, 1848, viz. : Liabilities as above . . £1807 7 9 Debt on loan notes . . 7C00 £9407 7 9 Less Cash balance 1 April, 1848 . £586 15 3 Ditto invested in Stock . . 210 796 15 3 9280 9 7 8610 12 6 Reduction in Debt since 1 April, 1847 £i 669 17 1 A. Duncan, Accountant, 10, Tokenhouse Yard. APPENDIX B. Report from the Garden Cojijiittee to the Council, Dated April 3, 1848. The Garden Committee have to report for the information of tie Council that the general condition of the Garden is satisfactory, the plants in ex- cellent health, and the premises, with the exception of the Old Orchid House, in substantial repair. They, however, regret to state that the large wrought-iron boilers employed in heating the Great Conservatory have become leaky in consequence of rust, and appear to be incapable of repair, and will have to be replaced ; at the same time, in order to destroy the dampness of the stoke-hole in which they are placed, it will be necessary to make some alterations in the brickwork. Some valuable contributions to the collections at the Garden have been received from Mr. Hartweg and the various correspondents of the Society. Among them they would especially point out the following : — The Shuker Para, or Greengage Apricot of Susedia, has been received from John Barker, Esq., of Suaedia, along with a very curious dwarf Apple from Armenia, and the large sweet White Mulberry of Iran, the juice of which is compared to Virgin Honey. From the Right Honourable Viscount Palmerston various Vine Cuttings from Persia, which, if they can be made to grow, will prove highly interesting. They were in bad condition, owing to free exposure to air in a broken tin case during their journey from Ispahan. From Captain Munro, through the Earl of Auckland, a young plant of Amherstia nobilis. From A. W. Powles, Esq., roots of Arracacha, Ocumos, and Yams, eatable roots from the Caraccas. From C. A. Uhde, Esq., various tubers of Mexican Potatoes. From Dr. Hermann Wendell, J. R. Neame, Esq., Messrs. Knight and Perry, Mr. Salter of Versailles, and others, a considerable variety of new Fruit-trees. A variety of useful Plants from G. U. Skinner, Esq.. Lieut.-Colonel Sykes, Messrs. Veitch of Exeter, Messrs. Lucombe and Co., Messrs. Low of Clapton, Messrs. Backhouse of York, Mr. Glendinning, Mr. Groom, Messrs. Knight and Perry, Messrs, Hendersons, &c. 180 REPORT OF THE COUNCIL, All the seeds collected in his last journey into the North- West Interior of New Holland from Lieut.-Colonel Sir Thomas Mitchell. Various Nepal Seeds from the Honourable Court of Directors of the East India Company. The most important of these are mentioned in the Journal of the Society as they come into flower or fruit. In the same place will also be found the result of the experiments carried on in the Gardens, more especially with respect to Potatoes; and a long and valuable series of observations on the temperature of the soil from 1837 to 1847. The new regulations for the admission of young men into the Garden, reported at the last Anniversary, have been found to work well, and effectu- ally to limit the candidates for admission to tlie best educated and most in- telligent class of young gardeners. The Committee have, however, found it necessary to introduce a rule that no Fellow of the Society shall have more than one person at a time employed in the Garden on his recommenda- tion, and that the age of the men shall not exceed twenty-five when they are received. Two of the men, John Grey and William Wren, have passed the pre- scribed examination with credit, and have left the Garden for places. The influence of the Reading Room over the improvement of the young men is found extremely beneficial. Attendance at it is regular, the conduct there praiseworthy, and the diligence of the men such as to deserve the favoui'able notice of the Committee, who find that the books most in demand are such as appear to have the most direct relation to the future objects of the men as gardeners. Twenty-nine evenings have been occupied by Lectures or special instruc- tion since the last Report. The Committee have to express their acknowledgments to the Rev. F. E. Thompson for his gratuitous assistance in holding three examinations in Arithmetic, and in delivering Five Lectures : two on the properties of numbers, and three on simple mechanical forces. With the aid of the subscriptions of one guinea each from Mr. Salmon and Mr. Horsman Solly, formerly reported, the men have for five evenings enjoyed the advantage of being instructed in the useful art of making ground-plans, by Mr. Francis Rauch, a gentleman possessing great skill in that department of gardening. They have also to thank Mr. Nathaniel Lindley for two lectures oh Heat and Combustion. And they have to report that Dr. Lindley has himself delivered fourteen lectures on various subjects connected with gardening, viz. : — One on the Education of Gardeners, ten on the Theory of Horticulture, two on the Diseases of Plants associated with parasitical Fungi, and one on the Habits and Primary Distinctions of Insects. This officer has also endeavoured to encourage the men by giving small prizes of money or books for the most successful competitors in making ground plans, collecting and naming wild plants, arithmetical exercises, and other matters connected with gardening. His prizes for wild plants were increased by the subscription of \L by W. Hasledine Pepys, Esq. During the year the resources of the Reading-room have been increased by some small purchases on account of the Society and by the following donations, viz. : — From J. F. Leathes, Esq., F.H.S. :— A lithographic drawing of a large Gourd, 196 lbs. in weight. From Francis Rauch, Esq. : — A plan of the Public Gardens at Versailles. MAY 1, 1848. 181 A large drawing of a beautifully trained Peach-tree. By M. Alexis Lepere. From Miss Lindley : — Butler's Sketch of jNIodern and Ancient Geography. A new edition. 8vo. Wiitts's Logic; or, the Right Use of Reason. 12mo. 1807. And some other works of instruction. From Edward Beck, Esq., F.H.S. : — A smooth slab of Slate for use during the Lectures in the Reading- room. From Captain Widdrington, R.N., F.H.S. : — Spain and the Spaniards in 1843. 2 vols. 8vo. From the Vice-Secretary : — Fortune's Three Years' Wanderings in the Northern Provinces of China ; including a Visit to the Tea, Silk, and Cotton Countries, &c. 8vo. 1847. Lindley's Elements of Botany. Fifth edition. 8vo. 1847. Thomson's Seasons, with Notes by Dr. A. T. Thomson. 12mo. 1847. The Forester. By James Brown, Forester, Arniston. 12nio. 1847. Wight's Spicilegium Neilgherrense ; or, a Selection of Neilgherry Plants. 4to. Vol. L Sir Thomas Mitchell's Journal of an Expedition into the Interior of • Tropical Australia, in search of a Route from Sydney to the Gulf of Carpentaria. 8vo. 1848. The Library now consists of 432 bound volumes, exclusive of pamphlets and unbound periodicals. The number of visitors to the Garden, exclusive of the days of exhibi- tion, has been 6380 — a smaller number than usual, in consequence of the exclusion of visitors by tickets on the days preceding the Exhibitions. The distribution of plants, packets of seeds, and parcels of cuttings from the Garden has been as follows : — 1847-48, Plants. -I Seeds. Cuttings. To Members To Foreign Countries, Correspondents, &c. To Her Majesty's Colonies r.,071 ! 44,041 1,256 j 6,848 116 j 519 3,085 350 86 Total 7,443 ; 51,408 3,521 A number exceeding that of 1846 by 73 plants, 1580 packets of seeds, and 939 parcels of cuttings. The Garden Committee have directed Mr. Munro, in making this distribution, to keep in view as far as possible the principle of not propagating plants that are readily procurable in the nurseries, and also that applications are to be complied with according to the order in which they are made. The Committee cannot, however, authorize the dis- tribution of plants without any application whatever being made ; and they are anxious to impress upon the minds of the Fellows of the Society, espe- cially of those residing in the country, that if they do not make known their wishes for plants, it is not in the power of the Committee to supply their wants. 182 REPORT OF THE COUNCIL, In this Report the Committee have forborne from proposing to the Council the execution of any new works in the Garden. But they think it desirable that it should be understood that a new Orchidaceous House has become in- dispensable, in consequence of the decayed state of the stove now occupied by Epiphytes, as has been already mentioned. The collection of plants of this class is now so extensive and valuable as to demand better and more extensive accommodation. W. H. Pepys, Chairman. APPENDIX C. Report from the Garden Committee to the Council, Dated Sept. 6, 1847. The Council having requested the Garden Committee to state whether they can suggest any mode by which the produce of the Garden can be made more available to the funds of the Society, The Committee have to report, that the present method of disposing of the surplus produce of the Garden is — 1. By sales to Fellows at the mai"ket-price in Covent Garden. 2. By sales in Covent Garden, on which an allowance of 12^ per cent, is made to the salesman, who for this profit finds baskets and carriage. These sales are effected whenever there is a sufficient quantity of pro- duce ready to make it worth the salesman's while to take it. From these two sources the money which is carried to account is derived. The Committee are not aware of any better mode than this of disposing of the surplus produce, concerning the amount of which very erroneous ideas are entertained. The produce of the Garden is applied to various purposes besides that of sale : — 1. The meetings are supplied. 2. All Fellows who visit the Garden are allowed to taste fruit, for their information. 3. All those Fellows of the Society who may be desirous of determining the names and qualities of Fruits are supplied with specimens of such varieties as the Garden of the Society produces, on application to the Secretary. Not more than two specimens of any sort are sent, and the expense of the package and carriage is charged to the Fellows making application for them. If a second supply of the same fruits should be required, it is not, however, furnished gratuitously.* 4. Much fruit is consumed in extracting its seeds for exportation to foreign countries. * The quantity of fruit thus supplied has been as follows . Pears. A pples. In the season of 1842 79 dozens GO dozens Do. 1843 34 „ . 19 „ Do. 1844 50 „ . 44 „ Do. 1845 24 „ . 34 „ Do. 1846 32 „ . 30 „ Do. 1847 68 ., . fil „ The above were sent out, named, in specimens of two of a sort. Robert Thompson. MAY 1. 1848. 183 5. Some is necessarily wasted by being allowed to hang upon the trees, or to remain upon the shelves of the Fruit Room, for inspection, till it is unfit for sale. 6. Some fruit is grown for the purpose of obtaining seeds for distri- bution. 7. A portion is consumed in supplying the tables of the OSiceis of the Garden. When these deductions are made, the produce of the Garden must ne- cessarily be much diminished, even in years when the crops are abundant. But there are other reasons why the produce is unproductive of pecuniary profit : — 1. A large number of the Fruit Trees in the Garden are unsuited to the London market, and their produce, if saleable at all, can only realize the lowest price — such are Cider and Perry Pears, and all those varieties of fruit which are necessarily retained in the Society's Collection, because, although they may not be of value in the climate of London, they are important in other parts of the kingdom. 2. From the great variety of kinds of fruit cultivated in the Garden it arises that only a very small quantity of each kind is ready for sale at the same time. This is not worth the attention of a salesman ; and the expense of sending such small parcels to London would be greater than they are worth, even if it consisted with the character of the Society to enter into petty sales. 3. The inferiority of appearance in the produce of the Garden, owing to the market-garden system not being adopted, is in the case of Strawberries such as to render the produce scarcely saleable at any price ; so that when the labour of gathering and the cost of baskets and conveyance are deducted, the net return is smaller fhan the expense. For this reason the Garden Committee found it necessary, several years ago, to order the market sale of Strawberries to be dis- continued, and the fruit to be left to be gathered by visitors. These are general facts, aifecting the results of all seasons, whether past or future. In the year 184G, the money-produce of which was unusually small, other causes came into operation unfavourably. The peach wall having been entirely replanted, no fruit whatever was obtained from it; nor can it produce any for the present. The crop of fruit of all kinds near Loudon was almost destroyed by the late spring frosts, and the Society's garden suffered in proportion. In addition to this the fruit-room was broken open by thieves on the 25th of October, 1846, when a large quantity of the finest fruit was carried oflf. The only great remedy for the unproductiveness of the garden in money is to change its whole system ; to abolish all the privileges which at present exist ; to sell everything as soon as it is marketable ; to stop experiments, and substitute market-garden cropping and cultivation ; and finally, to ex- clude from the garden everything which is not well suited for sale. If this were done, the garden of the Society might perhaps become as productive of revenue as the same number of acres of land in its neighbourhood, at an expenditure considerably larger than at present. But in the opinion of the Committee this measure would be unjust to the Fellows of the Society, whose privileges would be invaded, inconsistent with the purposes for which the garden was instituted, and wholly destruc- tive of the reputation of the Society, if not fatal to the Charter. The Society was established for the improvement of horticulture in all its branches ; its garden was formed and is intended for experimental purposes ; the funds of the Society are subscribed in order that these purposes may be 184 EEPOET OF THE COUNCIL, MAY 1, 1848. carried out ; aud if the garden is converted from one of experiment into one of cultivation for mere profit (and it must be either one or the other), the intention of its founders will be defeatc-d. These considerations explain "why a proposition, that "tenders for the entire produce of the garden should be annually advertised for," could not be entertained by the Committee. An indispensable condition in such an arrangement would be that the contractor should have full control over the crops, removing them when and how he thought fit, and restraining the Fellows of the Society from the enjoyment of the privileges secured to them by the bye-laws. In the absence of such a stipulation no tender could be made, or, if made, the sum that could be offered would necessarily be less than can be obtained by the present arrangements. Although the Committee are not able to advise any essential change in the present mode of disposing of the produce of the garden, yet they are of opinion that an improvement would be effected in the detail, if, in all cases (with the exception of pears), as soon as a crop is ready for gathering, the reserve which is necessary for the purposes of the garden were at once made, and the residue sold for what it will fetch — Pears to be sold only as soon as they become marketable. Thus, as soon as a crop of peaches, grapes, &c. was ready for gathering, it would be at once sent to market, with the excep- tion of so much as is required for exhibiting the variety, or supplying the customary demands. The Committee, however, in making this suggestion, do not anticipate much advantage, if any, in a pecuniary point of view ; but they offer it for the purpose of satisfying those who erroneously imagine that the produce of the garden is wasted. R. H. Solly, Chairman. 6th Septeml)er, 1847. ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS. XXII. — On the Caprification of the Fig. By Professor Gasparrini. [Translated fi'om the Italian.] The Roj'al Academy of Sciences of Naples proposed as the subject of an Essay — 1. To examine the opinions of authors on caprification, above all those of Cavolini and Gallesio, and to see what were the merits of the ideas and experiments of these men. 2. To describe the varieties of figs, those especially on which caprification is practised. 3. To prove by experiment or on anatomical or physiological grounds whether the fertilisation of the seeds is effected by the insect of the caprifig, or whether the insect produces no such effect and caprification be useless. 4. The Essay was to be accompanied by figures representing the varieties of fig on wliich the experiments are made, and the structure of their organs of fecundation and fructification. Gasparrini's memoir in reply is divided into four parts. The first contains a detailed physiological account of the caprifig and its diflPerent varieties, which he considers not only specifically but generically distinct from the cultivated fig; including a de- tailed history of the fly bred in its fruits. The second is a similar account of the eatable figs cultivated about Naples. The third here translated relates specially to caprification. The fourth is a botanical comparison of the fig, the caprifig, and some exotic species. § 1. Historical Notes on the Subject. — Herodotus informs us in his histories that the Babylonians knew of old that there were male and female date-trees, and that the female required the concurrence of the male to become fertile. This fact was also known to the Egyptians, to the Phenicians, and to other nations of Asia and Africa. The ancients were acquainted, moreover, with several circumstances proved by experience relative to the diversity of sexes in plants like the one just mentioned of the date-tree, and among these dioecious plants they distinguished tlie female as being the one that bore fruit. And in other cases where they suspected a diversity of sexes, not having any fixed rule or sufficient science to guide them, they judged merely by externa] fades, by medicinal virtues, or by other such fallacious or slight indications. If it may not indeed at all times have been universally believed that all things endowed with senses or VOL. III. o 186 ON THE CAPRIFICATION OF THE FIG. life are reproduced by the concurrence of sexes, yet the ancients, although they could not detect either the sexual organs of plants or tiie fact of their fecundation, nevertheless seeing them at certain periods of tjieir life clothed with elegant flowers per- fumed with various essences, distilling delicious nectars, all radiant with glory, as if prepared for some ceremony of pro- portionate importance, they judged by the rules of common sense and analogy that this was the period of their loves, and that there must be amongst them all, according to the laws of nature, a male and a female. Thus with regard to the date-tree, the Babylonians, either imagining or finding by experience that the great distance of the male was often an impediment to the fecundity of the female, they suspended to the latter male flowers brought from a distance ; and they believed that the fertilising power of these male flowers resided in the small flies which they harboured, and which, introducing themselves into the female flowers, caused them to set and to ripen. This operation, called palmijicalion, is still in use, and reckoned necessary for obtain- ing fruit in the countries where the date-tree grows naturally. If we could establish with certainty that this theory of the date- tree was current before the facts were known concerning the fig, we might well suppose that tlie earliest Greek cultivators, seeing the caprifig always sterile (in so far as that the fruit does not become sweet) with a coarse and wild habit, and seeing the quantity of little flies it produces, should have thought that that was indeed the male, and that the fertility of the real fig de- pended upon it, and that thus taking example from the date-tree the custom should have originated of suspending the flowers of the capi'ijjg to the domestic fig-tree. But the memory of this custonr is even more ancient than that of the palmification of the date-tree. This caprijication^ as it is called by us, is spoken of by the most ancient Greek writers on natural history ; it is alluded to by Aristotle, and minutely described by Theoiilirastus, writers who were not only superior to all others in their philo- sophical speculations, but were very ingenious in their ideas on natural objects and phenomena. Aristotle observes that a certain insect is generated in the flowers of the caprijig, which having become a fly, enters the unripe fruits of tlie domestic fig and causes them to set, for which reason cultivators always plant the one by the side of the other, or suspend the fruits of the one to the branches of the other. Theophrastus does not confine himself to this bare state- ment of the practice which prevailed, but discourses at length on the manner in which the little fly could produce this effect, whether by opening or by closing the aperture of the fig. He rejects the second theory and pronounces for the first, saying that the fly by continual nibbling enlarges the mouth of the ON THE CAPEIFICATION OF THE FIG. 187 fig- and sucks out the superfluous humours ; and that the air penetrating through the aperture, it follows that by its warmth and fermenting qualities the fig sets and ripens. Nevertheless tiiat there are races of domestic figs which do not require the aid of the caprifig to ripen ; and treating of these, this diligent ob- server is of opinion that that may arise from the quality of the soil or of climate as well as from the particular nature of certain figs which can ripen their fruits without assistance. He believes that a poor dry soil with a northern aspect, the deficiency of moisture in such a soil, the cool wind which is usual in such a situation, and even the dust wliich would cover the fruit and absorb its superfluous humours, would all tend to open the mouth of the fig and produce the same effects which in the other case are brought about by the flies ; and that if in Italy and some other countries caprification was not knov.n, it was because, for the above reasons, the figs in those countries set and ripened naturally : and Pliny, speaking of this subject, says that the caprifig is of a wild nature and does not ripen its fruit, but that it imparts to tiie fig that virtue which it does not itself possess, for such is the course of Nature, that even from putrefaction something should be generated. It produces midges which, de- prived of any nourishment from their own parent, fly to the allied fig, and by continual biting at the mouth enlarge it, and, penetrating withinside, facilitate the admission of light and fer- tilising air {aura cerealis), thus transforming the milky Immour into a sweet honeyed juice. On this account the caprifig should be planted near tlie fig, and on that side from whence the wind might carry the fertilising breath. Now this description is but little more than a copy of what Theophrastus had written so long before. These were the opinions of the learned as well as the usages of the country in the times of Herodotus, Aristotle, Theophrastus, Dioscorides, and Pliny ; but however ancient was the practice in Greece, it remained there ; for there is no tra- dition of its having ever been introduced into Syria or Palestine : and Pliny remarks that even at his time it was only in use in tlie islands of the Archipelago. It may, therefore, be affirmed with tolerable certainty that it was only brought from thence into our country (Italy), although, owing to the long rule of barbarians, it is impossible to fix the period of its introduction with any degree of probability. After the revival of science, Csesalpinius, about the year 1-583, discovered the sexual organs in flowering plants, and thus the conjectures of the ancients became a certainty. Nevertheless the opinions on the effects of caprification did not change in the least, and none of the botanists or agriculturists of the time, who treated of the fig, differed in this respect from Theophrastus, as o 2 188 ON THE CAPKIFICATION OF THE FIG. may be seen in the vvoi'ks of Bauliin, who lived many years after Caesalpinius. In the beginning- of the last century, Tournefort, travelling through Greece, endeavoured to ascertain the details and the effects of caprification, and whatever he saw and noted down he afterwards published. He follows the opinion of the Greeks with regard to the manner in which tl)e effects may be produced, saying that the caprifig produces tliree kinds of recep- tacles (as we have elsewhere explained in detail) and three gene- rations of the fly in the course of the year ; that there are eatable figs Avhich require the assistance of the caprifig to set ; that the virtue of caprification consists in the bite of the insect, which by enabling the superfluous milky juice to escape, causes the fig to set and ripen, and perhaps also some liquid issuing from the fly itself produces the saccharine fermentation by combination with the juice of the fig. Pontedera afterwards, in making known the structure of the flowers, as well of the caprifig as of the fig, states his belief that the fly acts upon the latter by giving admis- sion into it to light and air. AH which statements differ in little or nothing from the opinions of the Greeks. Meanwhile the discovery of Caesalpinius, in the commencement of the preceding century, had more than ever attracted the attention of the learned, many of whom admitted tlie necessity of sexes for the fecundation of fruits, and especially for the purpose of obtaining fertile seeds, yet there were not wanting those who contradicted it, and amongst other grounds adduced the fig as ripening its fruit without fecundation. But the most sensible observers multiplied the facts relating to the fecundation of vegetables ; they ascertained that the female date was enabled to set and ripen its fruit, not by the insect, as Herodotus believed, but by the fertilising powder of the anthers ; and, amongst other remarkable circumstances, this also was dis- covered, that certain animals and vegetables lived under a kind of mutual dependence for the accomplislnuent of the operation. Thus, for example, it was observed that the male flowers of the gourd abounded in pollen, which is their fertilising powder. With this pollen bees chiefly form their wax, and the bee flying from flower to flower carries it from the male to the female flower, which eagerly sucks it up, becomes fertile, and grows into the fruit. These facts and other similar ones having been related and proved, it appeared to tlie learned, and especially to Linnseus, that they explained the whole secret of caprification. This great botanist well knew that the fruit is the enlarged ovary, and that the fig commonly called a fruit is not the ovary, but a receptacle containing the flowers, and capable of enlarging without the assistance of fecundation. Knowing, moreover, by the re- searches of Pontedera that the domestic fig only contained female ON THE CAPRIFICATION OF THE FIG. 189 flowers, and that the males were in the caprifig, and that in the one as in the other the flowers remained enclosed withinside the receptacle, he conceived the beautiful idea that the fecundation of the fig took place by a special provision of nature. This consisted in tlie creation in the caprifig of an insect which, for the purposes of support and propagation, was obliged to penetrate into the domestic fig, and carried with it the prolific humours ; thus fertilised, the embryo was produced, and the greatest number of the receptacles remained on the trees and came to maturity. In reply to tliose who followed the opinion of Camerarius, who said that the seeds of the fig never germinated, as well as to those who alleged on the contrary that fig-trees could be only raised from the seeds of figs of the Greek Archipelago or of Italy, with the remark that the statement of Camerarius was correct in regard to seeds produced in Germany, France, or England, where, tliere being no caprifig, the figs remained necessarily sterile ; whilst, on the contrary, in Greece and Italy, where the caprifig existed, the fig-seeds became fertile, either naturally or artificially by means of caprification — this explanation* appeared so just and natural, that it was generally adopted. § 2. Concise Exposition of the Theory of Cavolitii. — Towards the close of last century Cavolini, who was in natural sciences the pride and ornament, not only of this our city (Naples), but even of the whole of Italy, sent to press a learned treatise on the present subject. He first describes the caprifig and the fig, then observes that they are but individuals of one species, the caprifig being androgynous, and the fig the female plant ; and he proceeds to endeavour to prove the necessity of caprification. The fig, he says, is a receptacle, or " a portion of the branch prolonged for the purpose of fructification, and not a pericarp, which is the external covering of the seed ; the receptacle can support itself and attain its perfection without fecundation, but not so the pericarp, on account of its adherence to the seed by means of its vessels." Nevertheless he afterwards declares, that this theory is not in all cases confirmed by fact, alleging that the receptacle of the strawberry, of the mulberry, of the black- berry, and other plants, does not grow or become succulent till after tlie fecundation of the pistil. And from these data he argues, as to the mode in which caprification works, as follows : that which is commonly called the frvut, is a dilatation of the branch, and bears the flowers ; but being different from the real branch in internal structure, the nutritive fluids meet with diffi- culties in passing from the large direct channels of the branch * See Hegard's ' Historia Naturalis et Medica Ficus,' Upsal, 1 744, in Linn. Amoen. Acad. 190 OM THE CAPRIFICATION OF THE FIG. into the vessels of the receptacle, which are of a different struc- ture and direction. On tliis account they would soon drop off if the female flowers were not fertilized ; but, as tlie fecundation induces an affluence of humours to the ovary, and thence to the receptacle, it follows that the one and the other continue to grow. And as this defective structure is greater or less iu different sorts of figs, so (extrinsic) fecundation is necessary in some, superfluous in others, whilst others only require a very little of it. And if the same fig at Naples, for example, may require caprification, and not require it at Capri, it is because, in the latter place, tiie soil, reduced to the finest dust, and the air, loaded the one witli alkaline salts, the other with phlogiston, could produce the same effect ; that is, the setting and ripening of a large quantity of fruits. Thus it is that in certain places caprification is entirely unknown, as in the promontory of Sor- reutum, Ischia, and other districts. Believing, therefore, that fecundation was necessary to sustain the domestic fig till its maturity, and that it contained only female flowers, whilst those of the caprifig were androgynous, with perfect anthers, it fol- lowed naturally that the fly coming from the one to enter the other should carry with it the pollen or the fertilizing essence. He, consequently, thought it worth while minutely to describe the insect in its various states. Such is, in brief, Cavolini's theory of caprification, which we should have given in detail did it not appear to us to be too prolix and somewhat obscure. § 3. Exposition of the Theory of Gallesio. — Gallesio, not long dead, has left a large treatise on the physiology of the fig and on caprification. We have extracted from it in their proper places whatever appeared to us of the most importance on the fig and on the caprifig, and we now proceed to state this author's opinion on caprification. He admits with Theophrastus, Pliuy, and so many others, that there are figs which mature their fruits naturally, and otiiei-s that require caprification. This difference was attributed by the ancients to climate and soil, believing that in a poor soil, witli a northern exposure, the fig could nourish and mature its fruit without the caprifig ; Galle- sio, on the contrary, affirms that it proceeds from a difierence in organisation, that the fig requiring the caprifig is quite a different kind from the others, and that both preserve their cha- racter and temperament; in any soil or climate which they can bear. Now the diversity in their organisation, according to him, is this. Some figs have no flowers capable of being ferti- lised, as their ovaries are without ovules ; these produce no fertile seeds, and cannot feel the action of the caprifig, which they do not stand in need of to preserve and ripen their fruit. These he calls mules, and says it is they which are cultivated in ON THE CAPKinCATION OF THE FIG. 191 Spain, France, and Upper Italy. Other figs, called semi-mules, have flowers susceptible of fecundation, the ovaries being fur- nished with ovules. In these fecundation generates the embryo, which causes the nutritive humours to flow to it from the pe- duncles, which can only draw them from the receptacle; this, again, cannot obtain the nutriment from anywhere but from the stem, and thus the fecundation occasions the setting and ripening of the fruit. And as it is only the caprifig that can produce this effect, so caprification is necessary for the perfection of these semi-mule figs. Such are, he says, the figs of the Archi- pelago, and many of those of the kingdom of Naples, all producing female flowers only, § 4. Opinions against Caprification. — There are many who will not admit that any effect is produced by caprification, and these are chiefly ignorant or simple cultivators, who judge from observing that in many places figs ripen without the co-operation of the caprifig. But with these must not be confounded two distinguished French naturalists, Olivier and Bory de St. Vin- cent, who have enounced the same opinion. The former, after having explained the process as practised in Greece, adds : — " This operation, of which some authors, both ancient and modern, have spoken with admiration, appears to me to be nothing more than a tribute of ignorance, which man pays to prejudice. Caprification is unknown in many parts of the Levant, in Italy, in France, and in Spain, and begins to be abandoned in some islands of the Archipelago where it used to be practised, and which nevertheless still produce figs excellent for eating. If the operation were necessary, whether fecundation be effected by the fertilising pollen dispersed in the air, intro- ducing itself into the mouth of the fig, or whether nature make use of a little fly to transmit it from one fig to another, as is commonly believed, it is evident that the first figs in flower could not fecundate at the same time those which have already attained a certain size, and those which are only just appearing, in order to ripen two months later." I do not transcribe the words of Bory, for his narration appears to me to be but a judicious illustration of what Olivier had stated. And here I close the history with the following brief recapi- tulation of the different opinions of authors on the mode of operating of caprification. The ancients believed that its virtue depended on the fly of the caprifig, which, by forcing its way into the domestic fig, facilitated the entrance of light and some fertilising or fermenting vapour, and enabled the fig to set and ripen ; and that a poor soil and northern exposure produced the same effect. Tournefort believed that the insect made tlie figs set and ripen by pricking and biting them, giving an issue to the 192 ON THE CAPRIFICATION OF THE FIG. superfluous juices, and perhaps by communicating some peculiar humours of their own produced the saccharine maturation. Pontedera followed the ancients, whose theories were all based on that of Theophrastus. Linnaeus concluded, from the obser- vations of Pontedera on the structure of the flowers of the caprifig and the flg, that the latter could not be fecundated without the assistance of the caprifig, and that this fecundation enabled them to set more abundantly. Cavolini combined in some measure the theories of Linnaeus and of Theophrastus, affirming that the caprifig fecundates the fig, and thereby causes it to bear more fruits and ripen them better ; but that the same fig can also ripen its fruit in certain districts by the sole effect of soil and climate. Gallesio follows Cavolini in as far as regards the action and effects of fecundation, but believes that neither climate nor soil can produce anything of the kind ; and that the figs which do not require caprification diffier from the others in the internal structure of their flowers. Lastly, the opinion of our cultivators is nearly that of the Greeks. They believe that the caprifig is necessary for some figs, which, without it, would lose the whole or the greater part of their fruits whilst still sour, and that it hastens the maturity even of those figs which do not absolutely require it. They also admit that the quality of the soil and climate may also in some cases produce the same effect as caprification. § 5. Discussion of the above Opinions. — The ancient philo- sophers and naturalists admitted, as every one knows, four ele- ments — earth, water, air, and fire — the wliich combined together in various ways produced an infinity of phenomena and thirigs. Now Theoplirastus, wishing to explain how it could happen that the fly should cause the young figs to remain on the tree, be- thought himself that, whilst the fig abounded in humidity, it was deficient in the air and heat necessary for fermentation, and that the insect, by feeding, carried off" precisely the superabundant humidity, and by opening the mouth gave entrance to air and heat ; and as this happened naturally in a poor soil and northern exposure, there was no occasion for the assistance of the fly. But in the present state of science, who would believe in the attribution of such powers to the soil and the north wind ? On the contrary, such circumstances would rather produce an oppo- site effect ; for the want of humidity and cold tend rather to contract the parts. And if any one were to see in the aura cerealis of Pliny that which is now called pollen, or the ferti- lising dust generated in the anthers, would probably be mistaken, for it appears to me that the epithet cerealis denotes nothing but fertility or abundance produced by the aura. The opinion of Linnaeus has, in truth, all the appearance, I do not say of pro- ON THE CAPEIFICATION OF THE FIG. 193 bability, but even of certainty, being simple and analogous to what takes place in a great number of vegetables. And that of Tournefort, if one does not entirely give faith to it, has never- theless much of probability, considering that in other fruit-trees the ovary, being j^ierced by an insect for the purpose of depositing its eggs, does not fall off on that account, but ripens like tlie others, only a little earlier. Cavolini's tlieory is derived directly from Linnaeus, only that his explanation of the manner in which fecundation makes the fruit of the fig set is ingenious, and even rational. Admitting then, for the moment, that the fact is as stated by that celebrated naturalist, that is to say, that in certain figs the nutritive juices cannot pass readily from the branch to the fruit (on account, as he says, of the extreme tenuity and curvature of the vessels), unless attracted by the embryo gene- rated by fecundation ; yet he has not shown that in the figs which ripen without caprification these vessels are really less curved or larger. Now we have proved that the structure of the receptacle in all tlie varieties of fig is tolerably similar. And his observation that the fine dust of the soil miglit produce fecundation is now wholly inadmissible. For although towards the close of last century there were some who believed they had obtained perfect seeds furnished with embryos, by fecundating the pistil with very fine charcoal dust, later experience has en- tirely disproved it. As for the virtue attributed by authors to the alkaline salts of the earth, or the phlogiston of the air, as being capable of producing the same effect, it can now no longer be supported without offending the dignity and grandeur of science. Gallesio's opinion is essentially that of Linneeus, as to the importance and the action of fecundation ; and he follows Cavolini in admitting that certain figs require caprification and others do not, for the ripening their fruits. But he does not see the cause of this diversity either in soil or climate, but in their different organization, believing that those figs only which have their flowers apt for fecundation require the caprifig, as well to produce the embryo as to ripen the fruit. Nothing farther can be deduced from Gallesio's work, in which, to my mind, there is great confusion, owing partly to pre-conceived and ill-defined ideas, such as that of the distinction between mule and semi-mule varieties, partly from the author not having precisely stated in what consists the diversity of structure on which he founds his theory, and, above all, from this, that he never himself saw the operation of caprification, nor examined the variety of fig on whicii it is performed. Moreover, his own tlieory, which we have perhaps stated more clearly than he does himself, appeai-s to be in contradiction with itself in the two principal points. For if, in the variety called by him semi-mide, the sap of the branch 194 ON THE CAPKIFICATION OF THE FIG. passes into the receptacle attracted by the action of fecundation and the vital power of the embryo, how is it that in the other variety the same cause does not produce the same effect ? And here let us repeat, that the different receptacles of the same tree, of whatever sort the fig may be, do not differ from each other in the least in the organisation of the vessels, the parenchyma, and the fibres. Such are the ideas of authors on caprification. Were we certain that Theophrastus and Pliny had intended by the word aura to denote the pollen, all would have joined in one general idea, that of fecundation. But in the history of the difiierent opinions, as given above, one remarkable fact is included, which may not appear at first sight, which is, that with all the subtle fancies conceived by authors in their theories and explanations, not one of them has put forward a single experiment ; but all, pre-occupied with the certainty of the fact, have aspired at nothing but discovering the reason — even those who had good opportunities of actual observation. And Olivier, in denying to caprification any power whatever, comes to that conclusion, not by experience, but by a just and rational operation of the mind. But as it appeared to me not only worthy of the labour, but most essential to the consideration of the subject, to ascertain the truth by experiment, I have applied to it all the care in my power. The questions I have chiefly endeavoured to solve are — § 1. Does the caprifig fecundate the flower-heads of the domestic fig, and make them remain on the tree in greater numbers ? § 2. Does the caprifig fecundate the female flowers of autumnal figs, and make them set? § 3. Does the caprifig hasten the maturity of the autumnal figs, or of the fruit of any sort of fig? § 4. Does the caprifig operate by means of the puncture made by the fly ? § 5. Does the caprifig operate in any other way than any of the preceding, and by any process as yet unknown ? § 6. Does the caprifig fecundate tlie flower-heads of the domestic fig, and cause them to remain on the tree in greater numbers ? The figs near Naples which always produce fruit are chiefly of two kinds, the Colombro and the so-called Paradise fig. On two middling-sized trees — one of each of these kinds — I sus- pended towards the end of April some cratiri * of the caprifig, * These are explained in the first part of the memoir, to be those young figs of the caprifig which first appear in September, and remain through the ■winter till the following spring, when they come into flower. ON THE CAPRIFICATIOX OF THE FIG. 195 called by our cultivators Mamme cli propichi, or caprifig teats. The fly entered the flower-heads of the fig, but they did not set in greater numbers on eacli branch than was the case on similar fig-trees not caprified, and growing far from any caprifig. In the ripe figs I could not find a single seed with an embryo ; they were all sterile ; some quite empty, others containing albu- men only, and when sowed would not germinate. At Baja the Dottato fig almost always ripens its fruit. Who- ever passes by that district will readily observe places where the Colombro and the Dottato figs are so close to the caprifig that their branches intermix. Yet there are no signs among them of early maturity, when compared with similar fig-grounds far from any caprifig. Tliese figs naturally do not bring all their fruits to perfection ; those that fall are called at Baja Sbufoni, and this usually takes place about the end of May or the first half of June. In these fallen fruits, in the vicinity of the caprifig, there are generally dead flies, and never seeds with embryos. Out of fifty figs recently fallen from a Colombro which I examined on the 17th of June, five only contained no insect; the remainder had them in greater or less numbers, but were so destroyed inside, and black and rotten, owing to the insects which had died in them, that to all appearance that was the cause of their falling. On the same tree were a number of figs looking nearly ripe, but slightly pricked and insipid, and which fell off" with a slight shaking of the tree. Some of these contained insects, others did not ; the former, like the fallen ones, were destroyed and black inside. As to the permanent or set fruits, which in the middle of June can well be distinguished from the others, there were some with the insect, others without. In the fallen fruits of the Dottato fig I did not find one which had not the fly ; but among the permanent ones there were some free from it. These expe- riments and observations were repeated three consecutive years, whilst every attempt proved vain at making the seeds of these figs germinate, though they were sown under a variety of cir- cumstances and at diflferent seasons. The fly, therefore, which issues from the cratiri of the caprifig towards the end of April produces no effect on the domestic fig either in fecundating their female flowers, or in making them remain on the trees, or in hastening their maturity. If in the latter respect a precocity may sometimes be observed, the difference is so slight as not to be taken into account, considering the diversity of aspect, the trees being more or less exposed to the sun. The size of the tree, the being single and uncovered, or choked by the .surround- ing vegetation, may also occasion some difference, even at very small distances. Indeed the different branches of one and the 196 ON THE CAPKIFiCATION OF THE FIG. same tree ripen their fruits at different times. That the Dottato fig should ripen its fruits at Baja is not to be attributed there- fore to the caprifig planted there, but solely to the climate, or perhaps to the soil, for the same variety near Naples will pro- duce nothing, even with the caprifig, and in other localities will do as well as at Baja witliout it. And on the Lardaro fig, which never ripens naturally, at least in the vicinity of Naples, although the fruits enlarge considerably, and some remain on the tree till the end of May, often as I have attached to it the cratiri of tlie caprifig, I never observed a single one ripen. Therefore I conclude that the remaining and maturing of the figs depends on two circumstances^ — the intrinsic properties or natural dispo- sition of tire variety, and on the quality of the soil and climate. § 7. Does caprification hasten the maturity of late figs ? In the district of Portici I made the following experiment. In a large property there were two small trees of the Sarnese fig, distant from each other about two stone-throws, and about equal in size and vigour. To one of them only, about the end of June, I hung the flower-heads of the caprifig, and I counted the fruits upon each tree. In the first days of September there was no difference between them. Each had some ripe figs, some still sour, and otliers commenced ripening. Counting them again, there was here also no difference, each tree having lost about a fourth part of their fruits. The following year I re- peated the expei'iment, with some modification. I marked with thread or with twine the figs into which I saw the fly had pene- trated, and I took care that there was no caprifig in the vicinity of the other tree. The result of this expeiiment was precisely the same as that of the preceding year. In the mean time I had suspended five flower-heads of the caprifig to a large branch of a Lardaro fig which rose considerably above the rest of the tree, thinking that however little the caprifig might hasten the maturity, the slight difference would nowhere be more per- ceptible than in the different branches of the same tree. Yet when maturity commenced numerous fruits on all parts of the tree were in the same state as those of the branch in question. Now it appears improbable, not to say impossible, that those five caprifig flower-heads should have furnished insects enough for so great a number of figs. I repeated the experiments for four years, and always with the same results, though in different localities. At the Camal- doli, where caprification is not practised and the caprifig very rare, I caprified copiously a Dottato fig and two white fig-trees, and none of the three showed the least sign of precocity. I be- lieve, therefore, that tlie insect does not at all hasten maturity. It must only be observed that maturity is not to be confounded ON THE CAPE.1F1CATI0N OF THE FIG. 197 with a certain early softening which happens to some of the deciduous fruits pierced by the insect. For, as will be seen here- after, the fly destroys and corrupts the inside of the fig ; when it is already disposed to fall it falls the earlier, and by rotting inside becomes soft the sooner. § 8. Does caprification cause late figs to set in greater numbers than usual ? The advocates of caprification affirm that in certain varieties it causes all, or the greater number of fruits, to remain on the tree which otherwise would have fallen oif. To verify this assertion I have many times made tlie common experiment which would occur naturally to any one, that of comparing fig-trees of the same variety, to some only of which the caprifig had been brought, in order to observe the difference. Those I have ob- served with that view are the Lardaro, the Sarnese, the Colombro, and the Sampiero. With regard to the two first, the experiments were made in different localities, especially on the Sarnese, which is very common. None of them showed the slightest effect of the action of tlie fly, in regard to the quantity of fruit ; and if ever any differences were exhibited between the caprified trees and those not acted on by the caprifig, either in favour of or against caprification, they could always, on being well considered, be clearly traceable to other causes (not to speak of soil, climate, vicissitudes of seasons, &c.), as for example, to the age or vigour of the subject, the number of branches, the having been or not enfeebled by a previous superabundant crop, &c. And what I say of the Sarnese may iji like manner be said of the Lardaro, with this exception, that being cultivated almost exclusively in the immediate vicinity of the capital, I had no opportunity of observing it in distant localities. Cultivators affirm that this variety more than any other stands in need of caprification, and indeed it loses generally nearly the half of its fruits. But of this variety I will only state two things, not to fall into lengthy repetitions — first, that the caprified trees lose also a great quan- tity of their figs ; and next, that those not caprified ripen many of theirs, with such differences as are occasioned by the above- mentioned causes or others to which I shall presently advert. The double-bearing figs, such as the Paradiso, tlie Colombro, and the Sampiero, usually bring many of their early figs to maturity, and but few or none of the late ones ; and cultivators affirm that by caprification an abundant second crop may be obtained. Although I had often seen tiie Colombro ripen many of the late crop without the caprifig, I nevertheless wished to see the results of comparative experiment. Therefore, in the beginning of July, in the neighbourhood of Pianura, I gave the caprifig to several trees of the Colombro fig ; amongst them 198 ON THE CAPRIFICATION OF THE FIG. many had lost all their figs by the middle of August, some re- tained a few ; they had fared like other trees of tli'e same sort not caprified and placed at a considerable distance. Among the fallen fruils some contained the insect, others did not; and it was the same with those that remained on the trees and were advancing towards maturity. Amongst these Colombro figs were several trees of the Sampiero, of which four were capiified. The result was that two of them lost all their figs, botli tliose at the base of the fruit-branclies, called pedagnuoli, and those of the extremities, called cimaruoli. The other two trees scarcely ripened a fourth part, and tliose chiefly cimaruoli, and the fly had penetrated into some of the fallen fruits. It must be noted, moreover, that the above fig-trees were all of the same age, in the same soil, with tlie same exposure, and all more or less had brouglit to maturity a good early crop. The same experi- ment, repeated at Ischia on two trees of the Colombro, produced no result. For if these trees were pretty well loaded, the same tiling took place in many otlier parts of the island without capri- fication, and not unfrequently in the same places, were fig-trees near to each other, some with and some witliout fruits, without anything appearing to show a probable reason for such diversity. § 9. Does the caprifig, by the assistance of its insect, fecundate the female flowers of the late figs ? As soon as botanists learnt from the observations of Pontedera that the flowers of the difierent varieties of the domestic fig were always all female, as well in the early as in the late flowers ; and as they believed that the caprifig was the male plant, they at once, by common consent, without further observation, con- cluded that these female flowers could only be fecundated by means of the insect, recognising in this a providence of nature for the accomplishment of that important function. And I my- self, having ascertained the correctness of the fact stated, came naturally to the same conclusion, altiiough I had ascertained that the caprifig was not the male of the fig, but a very different plant. But in the course of time doubts gradually suggested themselves to my mind, to remove which I devoted myself to ulterior researches. First, it appeared to me impossible that in all sorts of early figs there should never be a single fertile seed, even when male flowers were present. Yet after repeated ex- aminations I always found such to be the case. This must not excite surprise, however, on considering that the flies which enter these come from the cratiri (the young figs of the caprifig that were first formed in the previous autumn), in which are either no male flowers or very few, and those almost always imperfect, and with little or no pollen. And then, if in these early figs I occasionally found a male flower, it was only formed ON THE CAPKIFICATION OF THE FIG. 199 long after the female flowers, and its anthers never opened, so that any one miglit conclude tliat if there were no fertile seeds it was for want of fecundation. What is surprising is the fact that in the late figs ttie embryo is produced especially in the peda- gnuoLi (at the base of the branches), and in hot situations, wliether the tree be caprified or not. The white fig, the Dottato, and others which the Neapolitans do not caprify, produce abundance of fertile seeds, even in places where caprification is never prac- tised, and where tlie caprifig itself is rare, as for example at Camahioli, Ischia, &c. But such observations always leave some doubt wlietlier the insect may not have come from somewhere else, and effected fecundation. In reply to which it must be remembered, in the first place, that this insect, when he issues from his nest, flies with difficulty to any considerable distance ; and next, that after he has entered the fig he dies there, and is afterwards to be found either entire or partly decomposed : at the least there remains, as a sign of his having been inside, a brown spot, which easily turns to decay. Now in places where there are no caprifigs, and where caprification is not practised, I have found tlie seeds perfect in figs which did not show the least sign of the insect having penetrated. Besides, towards the middle of July I impregnated artificially thirty flower-heads on a Lardaro fig, by introducing into the aperture the pollen of the caprifig ; one month after ten of them had fallen from the tree without their seeds being fertilized, and the remaining ones did not ditfisr either in size or in the number of fertile seeds they contained from the numerous others of the same tree which had neither been caprified nor artificially impregnated. Not satisfied by all this, I made three consecutive years an experiment which appears to me more important than all the above-mentioned observations. Before any flies began to issue from the caprifig flower-heads, 1 closed the apertures of some still small figs of the Lardaro and Sarnese varieties with gum arable mixed with chalk, so as to prevent the insect, should he attempt it, from penetrating withinside ; and I took, care to add some of the mix- ture as the figs grew, to keep them well closed. When they attained their full size I opened them ; they showed no sign whatever of the fly having penetrated, yet they contained seeds with perfect, well-formed embryos. If this experiment is made upon trees to which the caprifig is afterwards applied, it is a curious thing to see the fly, after issuing from its nest, seek a place to deposit its eggs, and, lighting upon the closed figs, exert itself with all its might to penetrate all round the mouth, trying to force it open where it was only slightly green, and finally, seeing all its endeavours hopeless, turn away from it. This experiment clearly proved that caprification was not neces- 200 ON THE CAPHIFICATION OF THE FIG. sary to generate the embryo of the fig, though it was not con- clusive as to impregnation not being requisite. For it might have happened that some organ or other under some strange form might contain the pollen, and be found on or amongst the female flowers. With this view I examined with the microscope, with all the care in my power, all the internal parts of the fig in every stage from its first appearance to the attaining its full size — the scales under the mouth, the pedicels, the bracts, the perigone, the pistil from the base to the summit — and I never succeeded in discovering anything which contained pollen, or any other analogous substance which might be even suspected of producing impregnation. Only it must be observed that on the style, from its young state till shortly after the changes that take place in the .ovulum, or about that time, there appear certain obscure grains which at first sight have some resemblance to those of pollen. On attentive examination they proved to be little glands, with the appearance of wrinkled grains, composed of cellular tissue ; and as they first appear so they remain. The same grains appear also in the caprifig and in exotic figs. Besides, it appears that the style has not the tissue for conducting the pollen, unless you would give that name to the internal part of the style, formed of longer and more slender cells than those of the exterior, as may be so frequently observed in lengthened slender organs of numerous dicotyledonous plants. Thus every attempt on my part to discover any need of the fecundating substance of stamens to produce the embryo has failed. And, if I am not mistaken, this is not an isolated fact in the science, Mr. J. Smith having ( Transactions of the Linnean Society, 1840) already announced that the female of a dioecious plant, indigenous to New Holland, of the family of Euphorbiacese, called by him Coelebogyne, bears in London * fertile seeds with- out a mile flower having ever been discovered on it, and without any suspicion that it could have been impregnated by the pollen of any allied plant ; and whoever, in answer to what I have stated of the fig, should allege the assertion of Linnaeus, that this tree only produces good fruit where the caprifig grows, must recollect wliat I have said respecting it, that differences in climate and season more or less hot cause more or less of the seeds to remain empty, and that on that account, in the northern parts of Europe and in stoves, the seeds would probably always remain sterile. So it is with our Vernino fig, as to the fruits wdiich it ripens in the open air in November or December, and with that treble-bearing' La Cava fig-, which will sometimes At Kew Gardens. ON THE CAPRIFICATION OF THE FIG. 201 ripen in a room in the depth of winter. On the other hand, tlie appearance of the summer figs at a time when the flower-heads of the caprifig are in a state of perfection, the insect ready to come out, shows in a manner ^ final cause, which can hardly be anything but fecunda